The Goophered Grapevine. Charles Chestnutt Essay

The Goophered Grapevine. Charles Chestnutt - Essay Example The term defines the way African Americans see themselves as individuals and as a group, but not just through their own eyes. They see themselves through the lens of the Other, the dominant culture. Du Bois says it is "always looking at one's self through the eyes of others, of measuring one's soul by the tape of a world that looks on in amused contempt and pity" (Du Bois). This produces what Du Bois calls a "twoness,--an American, a Negro; two souls, two thoughts, two unreconciled strivings; two warring ideals in one dark body† (Du Bois). Understandably, being constantly aware of others’ perception and confounding, exploiting, and denying that view causes conflict within a person. Sometimes action may not be exactly ethical like the actions of the characters in â€Å"The Goophered Grapevine.† The conflict within African Americans occurs because the white American disrespected, humiliated, and dehumanized them. â€Å"Double consciousness† describes the Afri can Americans’ desire to contribute and participate in all the country has to offer; yet knowing that the wealth denied them was gained by the sweat of the brow of their ancestors. African Americans want to be both black and American, true to their culture and their country. However, even after Emancipation, it took more effort with much less return. Some deterrent is always thrown into the path of African American advancement—segregation, bussing, prejudice, unemployment. Charles Chestnutt’s story illustrates this double consciousness which influences every contact black Americans have outside their own culture. The story’s structure reveals the way the dominant culture views African Americans, narrated by the vineyard owner recounting Uncle Julius’s story. The vineyard owner shares it with the world seemingly without Uncle Julius’ permission. Of course, Uncle Julius asked the indulgence (read: permission) of the vineyard owner and his wife to share the story with them. â€Å"I wouldn' spec' fer you ter b'lieve me 'less you know all 'bout de fac's. But ef you en young miss dere doan' min' lis'n'in' ter a ole nigger run on a minute er two w'ile you er restin', I kin 'splain to yer how it all happen'" (Chestnutt). Uncle Julius prefaces his tale with his doubt that the vineyard owner will believe him, a result of the double consciousness. Uncle Julius expects his tale will be treated with derision and disbelief. Hearing the story, readers wonder why the slaves did not feel threatened enough by Dugal to avoid his vineyard, and the grapes continue to disappear. Apparently the slaves do not fall into Dugal’s traps. They know he cannot do much to them because if he punishes them too severely, the slaves may not work hard to harvest his grapes. Not only that, since they are the ones who do the work to make the grapes profitable, surely a few grapes are their due. This way the double consciousness serves them well. But it also backfires because Dugal knows what frightens them: the slaves believe the grapes are hexed. Dugal pays Aunt Peggy to hex them even though he does not believe they are truly bewitched. Otherwise, Dugal would not sell the scuppernong grapes and cause the death of anybody who ate them. He would be allowing people to die and killing off his own customers. Dugal’s purpose in â€Å"goophering† the grapes was that he knew the slaves believed in the conjuring. If they believed that the grapes were cursed, they would not eat them. The spell worked except for Henry who ate them without knowing of Aunt Peggy’s spell, which actually turned out fortunate for Dugal. Dugal thinks he is clever. The $10 he paid Aunt Peggy was a wise investment, especially since it provides income

Typical Family

Typical Family As society has evolved, so has the idea of the typical family.  Historically, the idea of family  consisted of one father (the King of the Castle, so to speak), one mother (often the family matriarch) and a child or children, all of whom are biologically related. The image painted around the All American Family  is one that includes a beautiful house with blue window panes and a white picket fence, set right in the middle of middle-class, suburban America. While families that do fit this stereotype continue to exist, many of todays typical American families have the roles of the parental units filled by not just one mother or one father. Parental roles are being filled by grandparents, aunts, uncles, elder siblings, adoptive parents, single parents, co-parents and/or step-parents. The children in these families may or may not be biologically related to the parents or caregivers; if the children are not biologically related they are usually adopted children, foster children, or step-children. Families such as these are often referred to as blended families . The term co-parenting  is sometimes used when two parents of a child are not married to each other. The same term is also used when referring to a family that has two lesbian mothers and/or two gay fathers. Although there is open opposition to gays and/or lesbians being parents or wanting to be parents (whether biologically, foster or adoptive), studies show that people around the world support and acknowledge these types of families. According to Gary Gates at the Urban Institute, as of May 30, 2003, the amount of lesbian mothers has grown to between one (1) and five (5) million; the amount of gay fathers has grown to between one (1) and three (3) million; and there are eight (8) to ten (10) million children who have one or more gay or lesbian parent.1 Mr. Gates further states that, 96% of all U.S. Countries have at least one same-sex couple with children under the age of 18  in their household.2 If one were to compare these numbers to the numbers that would be presented of tr aditional families, these numbers seem quite minimal; however, in the fight for gay and lesbian rights, these numbers are encouraging. Because the numbers continue to increase each day, they are also a testament to the desire of gay and lesbian parents to be seen as equivalent members within their communities, Lesbian, Gay, Bi and Transsexual (LGBT ) community or otherwise. Societys general outlook on gay and lesbian parenting is also changing. According to a poll conducted by the Wall Street Journal (1999), one-third of poll takers endorsed same-sex marriage and unions. These same people would most likely endorse same-sex parenting. Though there is acceptance and welcome for people in the LGBT community to openly parent and raise children, gay and lesbian couples and individuals still face many challenges from others who are not so open minded. Some people have argued that homosexuality is a mental disorder, therefore are of the opinion that members of the LGBT community should not be able to marry or have children. The American Psychiatric Association declared that homosexuality is NOT a mental illness [emphasis added] in 1973.3 The American Psychological Association adopted the same measure in 1975. As psychology was one of the first disciplines to study homosexuality in depth, psychologists have discovered that the fear of being gay (or homophobia ) has played a key role in anti-gay attitudes and behaviors of those who disagree with the gay lifestyle. Though this finding has helped people better understand the reasons certain people are uncomfortable or against the LGBT lifestyle, it has not completely neu tralized the unfounded fears that some people have. There have been some arguments that gay or lesbian parents will molest their children, biological or otherwise. The Child Welfare League of America studied and concluded that, the likelihood of homosexual adopters molesting children placed with them is no greater than it is for the general population. 4 Roland Summit, M.D. concludes that, the vast majority of offenders are heterosexual men. Male offenders who abuse young boys maintain adult heterosexual relationships. The habitual molester of boys is rarely attracted to adult males.5 The premise that ones sexual orientation defines that person as a pedophile has been proven false time and time again. This particular fear has propounded multiple studies, most, if not all, with the same generalized conclusion. The American Psychological Associations policy statement regarding placing prospective adoptive and foster children within gay or lesbian homes reads, in pertinent part: The picture that emerges from research is one of general engagement in social life with peers, parents, family members, and friends. Fears about children of lesbian or gay parents being sexually abused by adults, ostracized by peers, or isolated in single-sex lesbian or gay communities have received no scientific support. Overall, results of research suggest that the development, adjustment, and well-being of children with lesbian and gay parents do not differ markedly from that of children with heterosexual parents.6 This policy has generously helped LGBT parents to fulfill their dream of having a family through the adoption process.

Leonardo Fibbonacis Famous Formulas :: essays research papers

Some people hate math and some love it. Other people devote their time to finding math patterns because they do not have a life. Leonardo Pisano Fibonacci, or Leonardo of Pisa, was one of those people. He was the "greatest European mathematician of the middle ages". Fibonacci was born 1175 AD in Pisa, Italy. His father was named Guilielmo, a member of the Bonacci Family and his mother Alessandra died when he was only nine years old. Fibonacci grew up with a North African Education because his father worked a trading post in that location. While there helping his father, he learned the Hindu-Arabic numeral system. Fibonacci traveled the Mediterranean world to study about Arab mathematicians of the time. Leonardo returned from his travels around 1200. In 1202, at age 32, he published what he had learned and introduced Hindu-Arabic numerals to Europe. His book was called Liber abaci. The book explained numeration with the digits 0?9 and place value. It also showed the importance of th e new numeral system. The book educated Europe and had an impact on European thought. However, the use of decimal numerals did not become widespread until much later. Liber Abaci also solved a problem involving the growth of a supposed population of rabbits. The solution was a series of numbers known as Fibonacci numbers. The number sequence was known to Indian mathematicians as early as the 6th century, but Fibonacci's Liber Abaci introduced it to the West. The Fibonacci numbers are a sequence of numbers that begin with 0, 1 ... and then calculated each number from the sum of the previous two. The equation for this method is . Another theory he studied was a sequence that has a flower like pattern. Fibonacci's second work was the Practica geometriae and was composed in 1220-1221. The Practica geometriae draws heavily on the works of the ancient Greek masters i.e. Plato. Fibonacci made a dent in mathematics history.

How to Preserve Endanger Animals

How endangerment of animals can be prevented or overcome. There are many ways to help the endangered animal. One of the most important ways to help threatened animals is to conserve their habitat permanently. These habitats are area such as national parks, national reserves and wilderness areas. There they can live without interference by human activities. Human’s activities such as deforestation, farming, over grazing and development result the soil compaction, erosion, desertification, and alteration of local climatic conditions.These changes make the wildlife ill-adapt to the drastically changed environment. In areas where rare species are present, habitat destruction can quickly force a species to extinction. Besides that, we can also play our role in conserving the wildlife habitat. Controlling the rubbish dumping systematically and give heavy fine to irresponsibility citizen that against the rules. By conserving the wildlife habitats, endangered animal can be saved. Many of the Earth's habitats, animals, plants, insects, and even micro-organisms that we know as rare may not be known at all by future generations.We have the capability, and the responsibility. We must act before it is too late. We carry the responsibility to let our future generation to have a look at those animals which is not by merely in the picture in the book. Furthermore we can join a conservation organisation. There are many community groups working on conservation activities. Different organizations have different objectives—some work to protect a small plot of land or to protect whales, others focus on establishing good environmental policies in local government.If you have a specific area of interest, we can often find an organization that is working to protect the species or habitats we are most concerned about. By joining in, we can support well-organized, ongoing efforts to protect species and habitats. Despite of the scale of the project, we are doing it based on our nature to help the endangered animal. As such, we must do it with our instinct to help these animals. Moreover we must support the 3R slogan – recycle, reduce and reuse. By recycling and reusing as much as we can, we reduce our impact on the environment.Additionally, by reducing the energy we consume, we take a little of the burden off our natural resources. As such, we are encouraged to respond positively towards slogan and plan that is hold by the government, such as the car pool system and taking public transport. On the other hand, we can also do our part to save the wildlife, remember to turn off the tap while brushing teeth and use water-saving devices on toilet, taps and showerhead, saving energy by turning off lights when we are not using it. We can also recycle your toys, books and games by donating them to a hospital, nursery school or children's charity.Try to consume organic vegetables and fruits that are healthier and also organic. We must also avoid buying materials that are made by animals, such as clothing, genuine leather and handbags. Many animals are killed to make human’s luxurious item. Producing food and good we use our existent knowledge. On the other hand, animals and especially rare ones could give us a lot of new attainments from history to bionics. Probably, people wouldn’t have invented an airplane, a submarine of a parachute without surveying of animals.Nowadays, studies are more complex, but scientists still have been inspiring by concealed abilities of animals. Learning about animals in their natural habitat helps us to unveil many things about our evolution. This is due to the interactions between human and animals always stay a connection and dependence in our livings. There are a lot of ways how to save land for endangered animals, but the most important thing is the consciousness of people. While we think only about our prosperity, we are unable to think about true beauty. What is so called the †˜true beauty’?It is actually the awareness of the people to figure out the importance of the endangered animal and how they suffer from being chased out from their habitat and thus being decrease in number and as a result extinction of that species of animal. The government should play a significant role here. Campaign should be hold more frequently and at more places so that more people realise the beauty of this nature and how much our hands have destroyed it and how many animals struggling hard to live without our perception. Strict laws should be enforced to curb people from poaching and lodging, deforestation is also strictly prohibited.Despite of the work carried out by the government, we also can do our role to help the animals. We can voice out about what we concern about and our enthusiasm to government or specific department. So that government will take into consideration that many people are increasing the likelihood that someone will do something about it. Besid es that, we can also share with our family or friends to spread and discuss how to protect and do our best on it. We can also let the people know the endangered animal by posting article in the ewspaper and forums on the internet so that the attention of the public will be attracted to the serious problem that endangered species are facing. In conclusion, we should try our best in several ways so that the endangered wildlife animals will be protected. The measures above should be implemented for the sake of the future generation so that they can also enjoy the values hold by these animals. Not only we humans have the living right but the other species have it too. Pictures of conserved national parks in Malaysia Taman Negara Tunku Abdul Rahman National Park

Bill Rights

The Theory that the Fourteenth Amendment incorporates the Bill of Rights established the foundation for the Warren Court’s criminal procedure revolution. The U. S. Supreme Court has incorporated many of the protections and prohibitions in the Bill of Rights. These protections are available to criminal offenders. In this paper, I will discuss which protections do not apply to the states. And the differences between the two laws: procedural and substantive. As you continue on reading, you know about, which protection is considered procedural and substantive.The protection against â€Å"ex post facto† laws means that the State cannot pass a law after a person has committed a crime and then prosecute the person for the first crime. You can only be prosecuted under the laws that in effect at the time of the crime. The protection against â€Å"Bills of attainder† prevents the State from passing a law meant to punish a certain person without judicial process. The Fourth Amendment provides general protection against arbitrary search and seizure of person(s) and property. However, there are many exceptions to the Fourth Amendment that includes a warrant.It still, does not provide broad protection of the general public from inappropriate police conduct. The Fifth Amendment provides a handful amount of protection. The protection against â€Å"double jeopardy† (which means being tried more than once for the same offense) comes from this amendment. The right to remain silent came from a defendant’s Fifth Amendment right not to be compelled to be witness against himself. This Amendment provides a broad right to due process of law. The most important Amendment is the Sixth.This Amendment gives criminal defendants the right to assistance of counsel, the right to compel witnesses to appear at trial, the right to cross-examine witnesses at trial, the right to trial by jury, and the right to be informed of the nature of charges that have been fi led against them. The right to speedy a trial allows the defendant’s trial to be waived and prevents the state from incarcerating a defendant. Procedural law comprises the set of rules that govern the proceedings of the court in criminal lawsuits as well as civil and administrative proceedings.The court needs to conform to standards setup by procedural law, during proceedings. These rules ensure fair practice and consistency in the â€Å"due process†. Substantive law is a statutory law that deals with the legal relationship between people or the people and the state. Therefore, substantive law defines the rights and duties of the people, but procedural law lays down the rules with the help of which they are enforced (Procedural Law vs. Substantive Law, 2013). Procedural law is exactly what the name implies. It sets out the procedure for how a criminal case would proceed.Every state has their own set of procedures which is usually written in a set of rules called a â₠¬Å"code of criminal procedure†. Substantive law deals with the â€Å"substance† of your charges. Every charge is comprised of elements. Elements are the specific acts needed to complete a crime. This law requires that the prosecutor prove every element of the crime in order for someone to be convicted of the crime. I believe that the Fourth Amendment is procedural because it takes procedures to be able to search and seizure a person(s) and their property.You just can’t go in and search with a reason and a warrant. To obtain a warrant you have to have a reason and steps to receive it. The Fifth Amendment is substantive because it deals with the structure and facts of the case. It defines the rights and duties of the defendant. The Sixth Amendment has the most procedural rights. It enable the right to a speedy a trial, impartial jury, informed of nature and cause of accusation, confront opposing witnesses compulsory process for obtaining favorable witnesses and rig ht to counsel. In conclusion, the U. S.Supreme Court has, through the due process clause of the 14th Amendment, incorporated many of the protections and prohibitions contains in the Bill of Rights. While reading this paper, you now know the protections that are available to criminal offenders through the bill of rights that do not currently apply to the states. You also read about the differences between procedural and substantive protections for the criminal offenders in the Bill of Rights. Included in this paper, you read about which protections were procedural and substantive in the Bill of Rights.

Immigration and Ethnic Relations

Immigration and Ethnic Relations There are many reasons behind immigration, men and women from different countries are usually motivated by the need for economic prosperity. Women, in their pursuit of better opportunities experience challenges related to barriers that exist in regards to immigration matters. The aim of this paper is to examine women’s situation in regard to immigration and ethnic relations.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Immigration and Ethnic Relations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Government migration policies and traditional gender expectations are often against the emigration of women. The regulations placed discriminate against women oriented occupations in the home countries. In the host countries, women are effectively locked out by policies that negatively target family reunification. In addition to the issues stated earlier, women eventually migrate via human traffickers who often exploit them sexually. This unde rscores the challenges that women face, especially those women who emigrated alone. Furthermore, after those challenges women are often have to engage in exploitative, semi skilled and sometimes sexually abusive jobs. Indeed, the demand for female sexual emigrants has gone high causing physical and emotional losses to women who got in sexually abusive jobs. The benefits of emigration may seem to be positive and varied but upon a closer look a dirty underbelly is revealed. Upon immigration, women have the chance to engage in economic activities that lead to raised economic status. Consequently, improved economic status leads to raised social profiles hence women get power to demand equality from men. This may be regarded as female liberation in regard to immigrant women. However, taking into consideration the low paid, unskilled and often exploitative or abusive jobs available in host countries, the justification of female liberation is untenable. Men often enjoy considerable privil eges due to traditional gender expectations in many countries. When emigrated married women get good jobs and provide the families, they often have less time for household responsibilities and thus, these responsibilities are shared between wife and husband. Hence, it is hard for men to accept changed domestic roles in their families. They may therefore resist efforts to bring gender equality resulting into double responsibilities and frustration for women. However, according to another opinion, women get a chance to gain from immigration and improve their economic and social statuses.Advertising Looking for essay on ethnicity studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The causes of emigration for women especially those with families are to ensure care and family reunion. One of the main aims of the emigrated women, especially those who left their families, is to ensure care for their relatives and consequent reunion with them. However, as usually low paid jobs are available for such women, they experience exploitation, abusive attitudes and often low payment which make their lives very difficult. In addition, gender discrimination and low regard from relatives who have traditional mentalities against women heavily exert on them. Therefore, women are under more pressure to conform when compared to immigrant men (Tsuda 45). Women in addition to seeking economic success may be forced to move away from intolerant home countries to escape persecution, exploitation and sometimes environmental disasters. Men in pursuit of economic liberation usually abdicate their responsibilities thus leaving wives with the family burdens to handle alone. This paper supports that women loose more than men in matters related to migration. On a high frequency, women’s rights are trampled upon in the search for prosperity and economic status when compared to men. Men are favored from either home or host countrie s and they sometimes contribute to gender inequality. They do not support women equality, as well as renounce their responsibilities in immigrant transnational families. Tsuda, Takeyuki. Immigration and Ethnic Relations in the U.S (Revised Edition), New York: University Readers, 2012. Print.

Bronze Age Greece

Bronze Age Greece When Was the Greek Bronze Age?: Put Bronze Age Greece in Perspective: Major Intervals in Ancient History The Aegean Bronze Age, where Aegean refers to the Aegean Sea where Greece, the Cyclades, and Crete are situated, ran from about the beginning of the third millennium to the first, and was followed by the Dark Age. The Cyclades were prominent in the Early Bronze Age. On Crete, Minoan civilization named for the legendary king Minos of Crete, who ordered the building of the labyrinth is divided into Early, Middle, and Late Minoan (EM, MM, LM), which are further subdivided. Mycenaean civilization refers to late Bronze Age culture (c.1600 - c.1125 B.C.). Bronze Age - Glossary Entry The following paragraphs describe important terms to learn connected with the Greek Bronze Age. Cyclades: The Cyclades are islands in the south Aegean circling the island of Delos. During the Early Bronze Age (c. 3200-2100 B.C.) pottery, marble, and metal goods were produced that wound up in grave sites. Among these are the marble female figurines that inspired 20th century artists. Later in the Bronze Age the Cyclades showed influence from Minoan and Mycenaean cultures. Minoan Bronze Age: British archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans began excavating the island of Crete in 1899. He named the culture Minoan and divided it into periods. In the early period newcomers arrived and pottery styles changed. This was followed by the great palace-building civilization and Linear A. Catastrophes destroyed this civilization. When it recovered, there was a new style of writing known as Linear B. Further catastrophes marked the end of the Minoan Bronze Age. Early Minoan (EM) I-III, c.3000-2000 B.C.Middle Minoan (MM) I-III, c.2000-1600 B.C.Late Minoan (LM) I-III, c.1600-1050 B.C. Minoan Bronze AgeDark Age Greece Knossos: Knossos is a Bronze Age city and archaeological site in Crete. In 1900, Sir Arthur Evans bought the site where ruins had been found, and then worked on restoring its Minoan palace. Legend says King Minos lived at Knossos where he had Daedalus build the famous labyrinth to house the minotaur, the monstrous offspring of King Minos wife Pasiphae. KnossosThe Palace of Minos - Kris Hirst - Archaeology at About.comLabrysMinotaurDaedalus Mycenaeans: The Myceaneans, from mainland Greece, conquered the Minoans. They lived in fortified citadels. By 1400 B.C. their influence extended to Asia Minor, but they disappeared between about 1200 and 1100, at which time the Hittites also disappeared. Heinrich Schliemanns excavations of Troy, Mycenae, Tiryns, and Orchomenos revealed Mycenaean artifacts. Michael Ventris probably deciphered its writing, Mycenaean Greek. The connection between Myceaneans and the people described in the epics attributed to Homer, The Iliad and The Odyssey, is still debated. Who Were the Mycenaeans? Schliemann: Henirich Schliemann was a German maverick archaeologist who wanted to prove the historicity of the Trojan War, so he excavated an area of Turkey. Schliemann Linear A and B: Just as Schliemann is the name associated with Troy and Evans with the Minoans, so there is one name connected with the deciphering of Mycenaean script. This man is Michael Ventris who deciphered Linear B in 1952. The Mycenaean tablets he deciphered were found at Knossos, showing contact between Minoan and Mycenaean cultures. Linear A has not yet been deciphered. Linear A - Kris Hirst - Archaeology at About.comLinear B - Kris Hirst - Archaeology at About.com Graves: Archaeologists learn about the culture of ancient peoples by studying their remains. Graves are a particularly valuable source. At Mycenae, wealthy warrior chieftains and their families were buried in shaft graves. In the Late Bronze Age, warrior chieftains (and family) were buried in decorated Tholos tombs, round stone subterranean tombs with vaulted roofs. Shaft GravesTholos Tombs Bronze Age Resources: Crete The Concise Oxford Companion to Classical Literature. Ed. M.C. Howatson and Ian Chilvers. Oxford University Press, 1996. Neil Asher Silberman, Cyprian Broodbank, Alan A. D. Peatfield, James C. Wright, Elizabeth B. French Aegean Cultures The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Brian M. Fagan, ed., Oxford University Press 1996. Lesson 7: Western Anatolia and the Eastern Aegean in the Early Bronze Age

Overview of Harappan Culture in India

Overview of Harappan Culture in India The earliest imprints of human activities in India go back to the Paleolithic Age, roughly between 400,000 and 200,000 B.C. Stone implements and cave paintings from this period have been discovered in many parts of South Asia. Evidence of domestication of animals, the adoption of agriculture, permanent village settlements, and wheel-turned pottery dating from the middle of the sixth millennium B.C. has been found in the foothills of Sindh and Baluchistan (or Balochistan in current Pakistani usage), both in present-day Pakistan. One of the first great civilizations - with a writing system, urban centers, and a diversified social and economic system - appeared around 3,000 B.C. along the Indus River valley in Punjab and Sindh. It covered more than 800,000 square kilometers, from the borders of Baluchistan to the deserts of Rajasthan, from the Himalayan foothills to the southern tip of Gujarat. The remnants of two major cities - Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa - reveal remarkable engineeri ng feats of uniform urban planning and carefully executed layout, water supply, and drainage. Excavations at these sites and later archaeological digs at about seventy other locations in India and Pakistan provide a composite picture of what is now generally known as Harappan culture (2500-1600 B.C.). The Ancient Cities The major cities contained a few large buildings including a citadel, a large bath - perhaps for personal and communal ablution - differentiated living quarters, flat-roofed brick houses, and fortified administrative or religious centers enclosing meeting halls and granaries. Essentially a city culture, Harappan life was supported by extensive agricultural production and by commerce, which included trade with Sumer in southern Mesopotamia (modern Iraq). The people made tools and weapons from copper and bronze but not iron. Cotton was woven and dyed for clothing; wheat, rice, and a variety of vegetables and fruits were cultivated; and a number of animals, including the humped bull, were domesticated. Harappan culture was conservative and remained relatively unchanged for centuries; whenever cities were rebuilt after periodic flooding, the new level of construction closely followed the previous pattern. Although stability, regularity, and conservatism seem to have been the hallmarks of this people, it is unclear who wielded authority, whether an aristocratic, priestly, or commercial minority. Ancient Artifacts By far, the most exquisite and most obscure Harappan artifacts unearthed to date are steatite seals found in abundance at Mohenjo-Daro. These small, flat, and mostly square objects with human or animal motifs provide the most accurate picture there is of Harappan life. They also have inscriptions generally thought to be in the Harappan script, which has eluded scholarly attempts at deciphering it. Debate abounds as to whether the script represents numbers or an alphabet, and, if an alphabet, whether it is proto-Dravidian or proto-Sanskrit. The Fall of Harappan Civilization The possible reasons for the decline of Harappan civilization have long troubled scholars. Invaders from central and western Asia are considered by some historians to have been the destroyers of Harappan cities, but this view is open to reinterpretation. More plausible explanations are recurrent floods caused by tectonic earth movement, soil salinity, and desertification. A series of migrations by Indo-European-speaking seminomads took place during the second millennium B.C. Known as Aryans, these preliterate pastoralists spoke an early form of Sanskrit, which has close philological similarities to other Indo-European languages, such as Avestan in Iran and ancient Greek and Latin. The term Aryan meant pure and implied the invaders conscious attempts at retaining their tribal identity and roots while maintaining a social distance from earlier inhabitants. The Aryans Arrive Although archaeology has not yielded proof of the identity of the Aryans, the evolution and spread of their culture across the Indo-Gangetic Plain is generally undisputed. Modern knowledge of the early stages of this process rests on a body of sacred texts: the four Vedas (collections of hymns, prayers, and liturgy), the Brahmanas and the Upanishads (commentaries on Vedic rituals and philosophical treatises), and the Puranas (traditional mythic-historical works). The sanctity accorded to these texts and the manner of their preservation over several millennia - by an unbroken oral tradition - make them part of the living Hindu tradition. These sacred texts offer guidance in piecing together Aryan beliefs and activities. The Aryans were a pantheistic people, following their tribal chieftain or raja, engaging in wars with each other or with other alien ethnic groups, and slowly becoming settled agriculturalists with consolidated territories and differentiated occupations. Their skills in using horse-drawn chariots and their knowledge of astronomy and mathematics gave them a military and technological advantage that led others to accept their social customs and religious beliefs. By around 1,000 B.C., Aryan culture had spread over most of India north of the Vindhya Range and in the process assimilated much from other cultures that preceded it. The Changing of Culture The Aryans brought with them a new language, a new pantheon of anthropomorphic gods, a patrilineal and patriarchal family system, and a new social order, built on the religious and philosophical rationales of varnashramadharma. Although precise translation into English is difficult, the concept varnashramadharma, the bedrock of Indian traditional social organization, is built on three fundamental notions: varna (originally, color, but later taken to mean social class), ashrama (stages of life such as youth, family life, detachment from the material world, and renunciation), and dharma (duty, righteousness, or sacred cosmic law). The underlying belief is that present happiness and future salvation are contingent upon ones ethical or moral conduct; therefore, both society and individuals are expected to pursue a diverse but righteous path deemed appropriate for everyone based on ones birth, age, and station in life. The original three-tiered society - Brahman (priest; see Glossary), K shatriya (warrior), and Vaishya (commoner) - eventually expanded into four in order to absorb the subjugated people - Shudra (servant) - or even five, when the outcaste peoples are considered. The basic unit of Aryan society was the extended and patriarchal family. A cluster of related families constituted a village, while several villages formed a tribal unit. Child marriage, as practiced in later eras, was uncommon, but the partners involvement in the selection of a mate and dowry and bride-price was customary. The birth of a son was welcome because he could later tend the herds, bring honor in battle, offer sacrifices to the gods, and inherit property and pass on the family name. Monogamy was widely accepted although polygamy was not unknown, and even polyandry is mentioned in later writings. Ritual suicide of widows was expected at a husbands death, and this might have been the beginning of the practice known as sati in later centuries when the widow actually burnt herself on her husbands funeral pyre. The Evolving Landscape Permanent settlements and agriculture led to trade and other occupational differentiation. As lands along the Ganga (or Ganges) were cleared, the river became a trade route, the numerous settlements on its banks acting as markets. Trade was restricted initially to localareas, and barter was an essential component of trade, cattle being the unit of value in large-scale transactions, which further limited the geographical reach of the trader. Custom was law, and kings and chief priests were the arbiters, perhaps advised by certain elders of the community. An Aryan raja, or king, was primarily a military leader, who took a share from the booty after successful cattle raids or battles. Although the rajas had managed to assert their authority, they scrupulously avoided conflicts with priests as a group, whose knowledge and austere religious life surpassed others in the community, and the rajas compromised their own interests with those of the priests.

Why do you want to teach Special Education Essay

Why do you want to teach Special Education - Essay Example I am aware that a special education teacher is required to be organized, patient, has the ability to motivate his students, understand his students and the teacher should also be able to accept the differences in others, something I experienced on a first hand basis. It is to my understanding that special education is a little different from the normal education system in that; their curriculum is modified to meet the students’ needs. The special education program is available at all levels from preschool, elementary, middle, and secondary level (â€Å"U.S Bureau of Labour Statistics† 206).  The teaching modes include the use of individualized instructions that can only apply to a specific child, for example, some students might need extra time during exams or others might need the teacher to teach at a slow pace for them to understand.  Furthermore, I also understand that there must be a strong teacher-parent relationship because that is the only way a parent will trust the school to take care of his or her child. In addition, there are reports of a rise in job prospects, in this area, due to a rise in enrolment of students with disabilities, and I believe I can get this opportunity (â€Å"U.S Bureau of Labour Statistics†

Expected Learning Outcomes in a Legal Class Research Proposal

Expected Learning Outcomes in a Legal Class - Research Proposal Example This therefore includes the introduction and development of necessary skills. These skills include research and analysis in determining relevant laws to be applied to case examples having practical application and significance in business. Another skill that would be developed as a necessary consequence is legal reasoning. When law is in issue, what is moral becomes an issue also. Hence the study should include not only law but the ethical standards or regulations related to business. More specifically this includes both legal and ethical regulations as pertaining to the entire global business organization. This in a few words is the Legal Environment of A Business. All these skills and knowledge expected to be learned in a legal class should lay the foundations for specialized classes that delve deeper into the Legal Environment of Business and Business Ethics. Both subjects cover such a large scope that they should be treated separately in specialized classes. As a foundation for t hese subjects, this general introduction should expose the student to the legal environment of business including the three branches of government, administrative agencies, the actual laws on business and its courses of action in times of conflicts. Problems at the corporate level involving contracts and employment issues must also be presented.

VOTING Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

VOTING - Essay Example According Lijphart (1999, p69), Cleisthenes introduced one of the earliest recorded systems of democracy in Greece back in 508 BC. This system of democracy required voters to select the least preferred politician who was then exiled for ten years in a distant country. The minimum number of votes that were required to have a politician exiled was 6000.However, if more than one politician received more than the set threshold votes, the candidate with the higher number of votes was exiled instead( Lijphart, 1999,p72). In the thirteenth century, the Venetian state created one of the most developed electoral systems at the time. The Venetian system nominated forty members in ‘Great Council’ and in the mid 13 century, the number of council members elected was increased to sixty (Grofman, & Merrill, 1999, p53) Though Venetians applied different electoral systems, approval-voting system was the most popular. The approval system required voters to cast a single vote for every can didate vying for a position in the council. Eventually, the candidate who garnered the highest number of votes was declared the winner to represent the state in the council (Grofman, & Merrill, 1999, p38). ... Equally important all candidates should be treated equally, without favoring a particular person over another. By treating the candidates equally, Schofield (2001, p584) notes that the voters are presented with a favorable opportunity of electing a person of their choice without bias and prejudice of any sort. Fair elections should also ensure that the victory goes to the candidate with the highest number of votes. Different governments and organizations apply various methods of ensuring effectiveness of the participants’ votes. According to Lijphart (1999, p102), votes become ineffective in electoral processes that lack fairness and transparency to both voters and the candidates. These malpractices include allowing particular voters to cast more than one vote, discriminating voters based on their gender, social and economic status, tribe, or ethnicity. In such cases, the votes become ineffective because people are not given an opportunity to elect candidates of their choice ( Lijphart, 1999, p105). In United states for instance, debate on whether setting the minimum voting age amounts to discrimination of young voters still persist. Candidates should be given an equal platform for presenting their candidature to the electorate. However, Schofield (2001, p587) notes that many electoral systems in the world contain elements of unfairness that favor a particular candidate over another or others. In such cases, the preferred candidate receives preferential treatment in form of positive media coverage, favorable popularity ratings among other practices at the expense of the other candidates. These practices make the vote to be ineffective because the

Leading Edge Supply Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Leading Edge Supply - Essay Example The importance of logistic edge supply is to trail down the circulation of the company stock and performance analysis. Initiating the aspect of logistic edge supply, intelligent platform comes into play since this provides key management data that in turn enables one to analyze critically the strengths and weaknesses attached across the supply chain. Other key management information includes optimization of planning route, understanding fraudulent activities that comes within the supply chain and enhance the workflow that usually is driven by data caused by intelligence platform (Ballou, 2003). Many companies ensure that implementation and utilization of leading edge supply is taken into consideration within the logistic systems of any organization. For the articulations be fully met, an organization is required to operate within the pre-requisite objectives that influence achievement of organization goals. When there is a presence of effective logistic in a management system of an organization, success comes at hand. However, this comes because of an organization chipping in to make sure that they employ qualified personnel, and tap into labor market using and adopting new technology that in turn boots operation within the management of an

Market failure Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Market failure - Research Paper Example Experts opine that there are multiple reasons that have worked behind the extinction of the cod. The most noteworthy reason that worked to this outcome is that the market could not allocate the resource efficiently and the federal government did not have any comprehensive policy for developing the fishing industry in a sustainable manner. This made the fishing zones vulnerable to over fishing and it led to over exploitation of the resource. This creates a negative externality since the ecological balance is lost due to depletion of the natural resources beyond normal replenishing capability of nature. Once faced with the depleting fish reserve, the Government of Canada took reconstructive steps to allow the population of the extinct species to grow and launched a process of strict monitoring of fishing activities in the zone. Background By the first decade of the 16th century, the news spread like fire that the fishing ports along the northern coast of Europe were a rich reserve of d ifferent species of marine fish (Emery). By the beginning of the 1990s, the cod fisheries were exploited ravenously. The once-plentiful stock of cod along with several other species had dwindled and reached the brink of becoming extinction. After the stories of cod fisheries spread, foreign fishermen started to catch cod from this zone. They made use of efficient technology highly efficient technology that helped fishermen to locate the position of fishes and harvest exceptionally large amounts of the fish, particularly cod. Stronger vessels, such as technologically advanced trawlers allowed big fishing fleets to visit this zone and from distant places and work on these shores for several months at a stretch. Fishing became an important economic activity and it was left to the market for demand to be supplied with adequate quantities. Hence this led to maximization of the individual private fishermen’s profit objective. This led to catching of fish following the commercial ob jectives of increasing production efficiency. Overestimation of the magnitude of stock of cod fish in these fisheries by the government officials in the countries of Europe and by some international bodies allowed the harvesting of fish, which crossed the limit of sustainable harvest (â€Å"Cod Moratorium†). Quotas were assigned sometimes by these organizations, but, these conformed to the economic requirements of these countries and did not comply with the ecological requirements. The outcome of this phenomenon was a situation of overexploitation of the northern cod. In 1991, the catch rate reduced significantly and also the concentration of large fish reduced (Emery). This led to reduction of fishing activity in the region. The total allowable catch was reduced by the Canadian government in 1991. A two-year moratorium was put on the harvest of northern cod in July in the same year. One year later, in July 1992, the Canadian government shut down the industry for an infinite period of time. Issue: Market failure in Canadian fisheries Economic incentives for overfishing The tragedy of commons A classic example of the tragedy of commons is the case of depleting northern cod stock. High sea fisheries in the pacific are a common resource and do not have any specific owner. Therefore these resources are exploited with the profit motive of the

Tablets and Business Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Tablets and Business - Essay Example Businesses are using tablets in many different ways. One of the ways in which tablets are being used as a tool for business, is as a companion device. A tablet offers a strong computing platform for employees who are need a device that is lightweight but has amazing processing speed. As a matter of fact, many new generation tablets have high processing speeds that match the computing power of laptops. Moreover, these tablets are robust and lightweight. Companies in construction prefer these devices because it allows them to work in an environment where carrying 10lbs of equipment is not feasible. Without a doubt, tablets facilitate this process. In the hot world of commerce, tablets are taking place of traditional mainframe point of sales. Many companies are using tablets as points-of-sale, and as an increasing group of start-up. Also, established technological firms are in competition in providing point-of-sale services that are mobile. This is convenient especially for those businesses that are customer centric. Not only tablets allow ease of access, but they also allow privacy for customers. This is monumental for many organizations as they are trying to connect with clients. Undoubtedly, tablets are the future for companies. Another key feature of tablets is that it is dynamically caching data at a rapid pace. Employees are also in a position to help clients doing business at their branches by either hastening transactions at the teller or by minimizing over-the-counter transactions (Schmidt 214). For instance, restaurants use tablets at their point-of-sale simultaneously as the order is given by the customers. Tablets are amazing because they interconnect customers, managers, cashiers, and waiters in a seamless manner. Restaurant managers are also in a position to manage scanners, reservations. All these tasks are being automated to better serve organizations, while increasing profit. A

Market failure Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Market failure - Research Paper Example Experts opine that there are multiple reasons that have worked behind the extinction of the cod. The most noteworthy reason that worked to this outcome is that the market could not allocate the resource efficiently and the federal government did not have any comprehensive policy for developing the fishing industry in a sustainable manner. This made the fishing zones vulnerable to over fishing and it led to over exploitation of the resource. This creates a negative externality since the ecological balance is lost due to depletion of the natural resources beyond normal replenishing capability of nature. Once faced with the depleting fish reserve, the Government of Canada took reconstructive steps to allow the population of the extinct species to grow and launched a process of strict monitoring of fishing activities in the zone. Background By the first decade of the 16th century, the news spread like fire that the fishing ports along the northern coast of Europe were a rich reserve of d ifferent species of marine fish (Emery). By the beginning of the 1990s, the cod fisheries were exploited ravenously. The once-plentiful stock of cod along with several other species had dwindled and reached the brink of becoming extinction. After the stories of cod fisheries spread, foreign fishermen started to catch cod from this zone. They made use of efficient technology highly efficient technology that helped fishermen to locate the position of fishes and harvest exceptionally large amounts of the fish, particularly cod. Stronger vessels, such as technologically advanced trawlers allowed big fishing fleets to visit this zone and from distant places and work on these shores for several months at a stretch. Fishing became an important economic activity and it was left to the market for demand to be supplied with adequate quantities. Hence this led to maximization of the individual private fishermen’s profit objective. This led to catching of fish following the commercial ob jectives of increasing production efficiency. Overestimation of the magnitude of stock of cod fish in these fisheries by the government officials in the countries of Europe and by some international bodies allowed the harvesting of fish, which crossed the limit of sustainable harvest (â€Å"Cod Moratorium†). Quotas were assigned sometimes by these organizations, but, these conformed to the economic requirements of these countries and did not comply with the ecological requirements. The outcome of this phenomenon was a situation of overexploitation of the northern cod. In 1991, the catch rate reduced significantly and also the concentration of large fish reduced (Emery). This led to reduction of fishing activity in the region. The total allowable catch was reduced by the Canadian government in 1991. A two-year moratorium was put on the harvest of northern cod in July in the same year. One year later, in July 1992, the Canadian government shut down the industry for an infinite period of time. Issue: Market failure in Canadian fisheries Economic incentives for overfishing The tragedy of commons A classic example of the tragedy of commons is the case of depleting northern cod stock. High sea fisheries in the pacific are a common resource and do not have any specific owner. Therefore these resources are exploited with the profit motive of the

Employee Relations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2750 words

Employee Relations - Essay Example BCL has been operating since its origins with this structure with little or no changes made, the new managing director, however, is young and highly educated, and having worked his way through the business, wants to implement changes to the structure and make the business more modern in its approach to all the major functions mentioned above. The writer of this report has been appointed as the new HR Director, whilst a new operations manager, who also happens to be the new managing director’s colleague in university, has been appointed to replace the outgoing manager. Through a consensus, the three senior managers have come to an agreement that major structural changes need to made, by reducing the management hierarchy, and by forming a strategic partnership with a leading high street grocery retailer, Cost-Savers, in a bid to see the business streamlined and cost effective. The new partnership is expected to cut costs down in terms of premises rentals, as BCL will have their shops within Cost-Savers shops. Another key factor is that Cost-Saver and BCL will share a distribution depot while one of the smaller of BCL’s depots will be shut, and where Cost-Savers and BCL are in the same location, the BCL shop will be closed whilst core and flexible staff of that BCL shop will be offered positions at the Cost-Savers shop, and the rest made redundant. Also certain low profit stores of BCL will be shut altogether. The main changes in the management structure include: Reduction of the number of districts from 16 to 12 District managers will be given expanded responsibilities for product placement, identifying new opportunities and increasing sales within their district Each regional manager will be given the added responsibility of providing development opportunities for store and district managers Each store manager will be given autonomy to recruit staff, promote products, stock products on own discretion, and have more direct contact with head office. All managers will be coached to become leaders and not merely managers for their sectors. Staff would be given the added incentive of a profit based six monthly bonus to boost their sense of belonging to the organisation. The main task given to the writer as HR Director is to come up with a plan to make sure the above changes have a positive effect on staff, and that an employment relationship culture of teamwork is brought about through the changes. This would mean engaging the staff in matters related to key decision making, and change the existing non-directional management of individual stores to align with corporate directions. Key Literature Review: From the above introduction, it can be inferred that BCL has decided to go from a hierarchical, and centralised organisational structure to a horizontal and decentralised structure. It is therefore important to understand these terms before delving any deeper. Organisational Structure: The term ‘organisational structureâ€⠄¢ simply refers to the way in which job tasks are formally divided, grouped, and coordinated. It involves the processes of work specialisation, where tasks in the organisation are subdivided into separate jobs; departmentalisation, where the subdivided jobs are grouped together; chain of command, which

Counterbalancing China or Exploiting BRICS

Counterbalancing China or Exploiting BRICS COUNTERBALANCING CHINA OR EXPLOITING BRICS: OPTIONS FOR INDIA INTRODUCTION 1.BRICS, a unique group of countries with shared opportunities common challenges, came into being in New York in Sep 2006. However, it was during the third Summit at Sanya, in China, in Apr 2011 that South Africa joined this group thereby completing the acronym. BRICS symbolises the amalgamation of the most powerful emerging economies of the world into a group whose composite economic strength will wrest the global economic power away from the developedG7economies. 2.BRICS economies account for a quarter of the world’s Gross Domestic Product (GDP) has been consistently displaying sustained high annual growth rates. The economic potential of the BRICS nations cannot be overlooked however, it is yet to be seen whether BRICS would only limit itself to being an economic group or will it also assert itself on the world matters in global forums that have been dominated by the G7 nations. The possibilities of using its economic potential are endless. In its quest to realise the stated goals, it is imperative that these nations work jointly cohesively. 3. The Sixth BRICS Summit held in Brazil on 16th 17th Jul was an important milestone for the member nations as well as huge economic opportunities for them as well as the member nations with the announcement of making BRICS Bank operational to be headquartered at Shanghai. China and India being the two of the largest and most influential members share an uneasy relationship both economically and politically. BRICS is the key to their relationship and path to mutual growth. Statement of the Problem 4.Can India leverage BRICS platform to offset its economic and border issues with China? Hypothesis 5.India can resolve its economic and border issues with China by leveraging BRICS platform. Method of Data Collection 6.The information for this paper shall be gathered through the study of various books, journals papers in print as well as the Internet. Views of various guest speakers would also be incorporated. An attempt would be made to refer the sources from various agencies. Scope 7.The scope of the Dissertation is:- (a)Background/Historical perspective of BRICS. (b)Economic potential of BRICS. (c)Significance of BRICS in global politics/ international governance. (d)Challenges faced way ahead. (e) Sino-Indian Disputes. (e)Sino-Indian Relations in Foreseeable Future. (f) How India can leverage BRICS. CHAPTERS Chapter I : Background/Historical Perspective Of BRICS 8.This section will attempt to throw light on the origin the journey of BRICS from its inception to the present day. It will also broadly cover important aspects of the Goldman Sachs report by Jim O’ Neil that brought about the acronym of BRICS. Chapter II : Economic Potential of BRICS 9.Developing to Emerging Economies. This section of the paper will bring out the geo economic geo political journey of individual nations, leading to their present status. It will also give out the steps initiated by the member nations of BRICS to emerge as a cohesive stable economic platform. It will also highlight the key economic reforms resorted to by the BRICS nations the latent potential existing with these members. 10.Present Scenario. This section will deal with the current economic potential of the BRICS nations, both individually collectively. The present potential of BRICS has been listed as progressive however certain critical aspects that boost the economic potential are not symmetric across the members of BRICS. 12.Future Potential. The future potential as predicted for the BRICS will be discussed in this section. This section will also analyse the barriers that BRICS can implement to immune itself from the present global economic slowdown thereby maintaining its economic growth. It will aim to bring out that as economic powerhouses regional hubs, intra-BRICS market integration can insulate these nations from worldwide economic downturn. Chapter III : Significance Of BRICS in Global Politics / International Governance 13. Economics Finance. The interaction of BRICS members in order to reform international financial system is likely to remain a key priority in the midterm perhaps also in the long term. 14. Global Politics. BRICS as a group has already accumulated valuable experience in coordinating actions with regard to several major global political problems. BRICSs deeper engagement with the UN will aim to preserve strengthen the central role of the Security Council in maintaining international peace security. 15.Security. The format of the BRICS does not provide for deliberating military, political issues developing mechanisms for military cooperation. However, there are regular meetings of the high representatives of the members on security issues, including strategic stability, international regional security, non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction the settlement of regional conflicts. This section will aim to bring out the underlying security implications for the BRICS nations in current geo – political environment. Chapter IV : Challenges Faced Way Ahead 16.The BRICS is still in its nascent stage owing to which it is likely to face a number of challenges ahead. The member nations need to overcome the internal contradictions to develop the group into a cohesive entity. This section will analyse some of these challenges like:- (a)Growth Disparity between member nations. (b)Trade Imbalance Mutual Distrust. (c)Public Private Participation. (d)Policy reforms for BRICS members to make their growth processes more durable development oriented. (e)Bring out the need to reform the structure functioning of IMF. (f)Launching of a joint development bank. 17.The Way Ahead. Under way ahead, recommendations for BRICS nations to sustain their economic growth mutual development will be deliberated. The important aspects such as mutual cooperation, handling of economic situation, establishment of BRICS bank and other miscellaneous issues will be discussed. Chapter V : Sino-Indian Disputes. 18. This chapter will be covering the disputes between both the nations as under:- Border issues. Geopolitical threat. Economic imbalance. Tibet issues. Nexus with Pakistan. Potential arms race. Indian Ocean Region. Brahmaputra water projects dispute. (j) Race for minerals/hydrocarbons in Africa and CAR. Chapter V : Sino-Indian Relations in Foreseeable Future. 19. This Chapter will be dealing with the mutual relations:- (a) Political relations. (b) Economic relations. (c) Potential cooperation areas. Chapter V : How Can India Leverage BRICS? 20.Key Thrust Areas for India. There are a few key thrust areas that India must seek in order to enhance its influence in the world forums. These thrust areas such as strengthening economic infrastructure reforms, building strategic alliances with members of BRICS, maintenance of steady pace of economic growth; increasing service industry’s influence energy security will also be discussed in this section. 21.Leveraging BRICS. (a)Geo-Political Leverage. This sub section will bring out how India stands to gain Geo-Political mileage by being part of BRICS. It will cover the aspects that will bear major advantages for India in the Geo-Political sphere. (b) Economic Leverage. This sub section will dwell upon India’s likely economic gains from BRICS that will further boost its economic growth add greater value to its economic potential. (c) Geo-Strategic Leverage. BRICS offers India ample opportunities to enhance its global reach overcome certain strategic impediments. This sub section will view all these opportunities against the backdrop of the Geo-Strategic implications that they may bring forth. (d) Defence Cooperation. This sub section will analyse the opportunities that India will have in realms of security while being the member of this group especially as Russia China, two of major military powers also part of the group. CONCLUSION 19. It is well evident that BRICS has emerged as an entity that has the potential to challenge the influence of G7 in the world forums. This potential evolves from a sustained economic growth the diversity exhibited by its member nations. The economic potential of BRICS is the sole reason why it is being viewed as the initiation of a Multi Polar World Order that is set to overcome the unipolar hegemony of the US. However, BRICS, in order to maintain its economic potential will need to eradicate multiple challenges that it faces due to the Geo-strategic locations divergent national interests of its member nations. BRICS will be a success in true self only if India and China can resolve their mutual issues and steer it towards the path of development and prosperity.

charant Characterization in Sophocles Antigone Essays -- Antigone es

Antigone– Characterization  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚        Ã‚  Ã‚   This essay will illustrate the types of characters depicted in Sophocles’ tragic drama, Antigone, whether static or dynamic, flat or round, and whether portrayed through the showing or telling technique.    Martin Heidegger in â€Å"The Ode on Man in Sophocles’ Antigone† explains, in a rather involved theory,   the destruction of Creon’s character:    The conflict between the overwhelming presence of the essent as a whole and man’s violent being-there creates the possibility of downfall into the issueless and placeless: disaster. But disaster and the possibility of disaster do not occur only at the end, when a single act of power fails, when the violent one makes a false move; no, this disaster is fundamental, it governs and waits in the conflict between violence and the overpowering. Violence against the preponderant power of being must shatter against being, if being rules in its essence, as physics, as emerging power(98).    The dialogue, action and motivation revolve about the characters in the story (Abrams 32-33). Werner Jaeger in â€Å"Sophocles’ Mastery of Character Development† pays the dramatist the very highest compliment with regard to character development:    The ineffaceable impression which Sophocles makes on us today and his imperishable position in the literature of the world are both due to his character-drawing. If we ask which of the men and women of Greek tragedy have an independent life in the imagination apart from the stage and from the actual plot in which they appear, we must answer, ‘those created by Sophocles, above all others’ (36).    Surely   it can be said of Sophocles’ main characters that they grow beyond the two dimension... ...ment of his edict; he changes after Teiresias’ visit and warning. Ismene and Haemon become dynamic later in the tragedy. Rarely does the dramatist use the chorus to convey information; most of this comes from exchanges of dialogue, which would be the showing technique.    WORKS CITED    Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms, 7th ed. New York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1999.    Antigone by Sophocles. Translated by R. C. Jebb. no pag. http://classics.mit.edu/Sophocles/antigone.html    Heidegger, Martin. â€Å"The Ode on Man in Sophocles’ Antigone.† In Sophocles: A Collection of Critical Essays, edited by Thomas Woodard. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1966.    Jaeger, Werner. â€Å"Sophocles’ Mastery of Character Development.† In Readings on Sophocles, edited by Don Nardo. San Diego, CA: Greenhaven Press, 1997.   

Types Of Diabetes Essay -- Health, illnesses

Our modern life is full of illnesses and diseases. Each disorder has its main causes, its effects on our body, and its own treatment. Most of these illnesses have been in our world for a long time. However, our life styles with its inorganic food, stress, and bad habits have assisted these diseases to develop and to spread faster than before. One of these diseases is Diabetes. Diabetes can be defined as a metabolic disease in which the body's inability to produce any or enough insulin causes elevated levels of glucose in the blood. It can lead to a lot of other sickness such as heart diseases, high blood pressure, and blindness. Even though most of these illnesses happen after having diabetes for a long time, the change in glucose levels in the body can cause a coma, or even death (American Diabetes Association). There are 25.8 million children, and adults in the United States living with diabetes, which represent 8.3 percent of the population, according to the American Diabetes Ass ociation. Diabetes has many types. However, we can divide them into a number of different categories: Diabetes type 1, Diabetes type 2, Gestational diabetes, and other types of diabetes. These three types have similar symptoms such as frequent urination, losing weight, and vision changes (Judd). However, each type differs from the other by the kind of people it Infects, the factors that cause it, and the way it can be treated. Type 1 is also known as Insulin-dependent Diabetes. It happens when the pancreas releases less amount of insulin than the proper amount, which causes changes the rate of sugars in the blood. The pancreas’ ability of giving insulin keeps on decreasing until it stops. At that point, people who have this type of diabetes can onl... ...ations, and Insulin : Along with Facts about the Most Common Complications of Diabetes and Their Prevention, Current Research in Diabetes Care, Tips for People following a Diabetic Diet ... 5th ed. Detroit, MI: Omnigraphics, 2011. Print. Metzger, Boyd E., Donna Kotulak, and Pam Brick. Guide to Living with Diabetes: Preventing and Treating Type 2 Diabetes : Essential Information You and Your Family Need to Know. Hoboken NJ: Wiley, 2006. Print. Monterrosa-Castro, A., et al. "Type II Diabetes Mellitus And Menopause: A Multinational Study." Climacteric 16.6 (2013): 663-672. Academic Search Complete. Web. 17 Nov. 2013. Shin Y., Kim, et al. "Fraction Of Gestational Diabetes Mellitus Attributable To Overweight And Obesity By Race/Ethnicity, California, 2007-2009." American Journal Of Public Health 103.10 (2013): e65-e72. Academic Search Complete. Web. 13 Nov. 2013

Narayan Murthy’s Retirement Speech Essay

Different people run out of endurance and intellectual horsepower at different points of time. Some people drop out of the marathon since they do not see any value in an organization when their own time under the arc light is over. A leader’s responsibility is to recognize this, provide them opportunities outside the organization, and usher in suitable replacements. Infosys’ journey is replete with many such examples. The Essence of Leadership : Many intelligent people possess a high ego and low patience to deal with people less capable than themselves. Leaders have to manage this anomaly very carefully; counsel these errant people from time to time, and allow them to operate as long as they do not become dysfunctional and start harming the organization. If they do cross the threshold it takes courage to inform the individuals that their time in the organization is over and that they have to leave. However, one aspect that marks out a truly superior organization is the ability of its employees at all levels to be driven by values and to ensure adherence and compliance under any circumstance. No individual is high or important enough for an organization to put up with non compliance. Leadership by example is what creates trust in people to follow a leader. As long as a leader is able to show his or her sacrifice and commitment to a cause others will follow him or her I am glad we decided on respect from our stakeholders (customers, employees, investors, vendor, partners, government of the land and the society) as the primary objective of the company. I have seen hundreds of instances of such leadership-by-example at Infosys. A sense of ownership among employees is extremely important to build a long term future for a corporation. Such ownership comes from fair merit based and generous sharing of wealth and perquisites among each member of the company. This is my answer to many of my friends who wonder why when Infosys was founded I took a small percentage of my earlier salary while every other cofounder’s salary was increased by at least 10 per cent. The same friends tell me that they do not know of any other instance where as much as 10 to 15 per cent of the company equity was given to co-founders who had just 12 to 18 months of work experience. I do not know of any Indian company that has given away as much as Rs 50,000 crore (at current stock prices) of stock options to employees. Today; every Indian employee at every level who joined us on or before March 2010 is a stockholder of Infosys. The point I would like to make is that such acts demonstrate that our leaders walked the talk in sacrifice and commitment. Strategy is about ensuring sustained differentiation m a changing environment for better net income margins Differentiation without better net income margins is meaningless. In my opinion operating margins and earnings before taxes depreciation and amortization (EBITDA) are not appropriate measures. In fact the best measure of differentiation is the per capita free cash flow generated. Such cash flows bring cash to invest in better people research and development infrastructure training and better customer and employee confidence The famous Harvard historian Niall Ferguson says in his book Civilization: The West and the Rest that the six attributes that have made Western civilization dominant during the last five hundred years are ompetition, science, property rights, medicine, consumption and a good work ethic. I have been saying for many years now that the factors that differentiate a corporation from its competitors are an enduring value system open mindedness, pluralistic and meritocratic approach and practicing speed, imagination and excellence in execution. Leaders have to focus on creating such an environment. The Essence of Leadership : Leadershi p is about taking bold and firm decisions with incomplete information in an environment of uncertainty: Leaders who waffle do not inspire confidence in their people. It is important to use as much data and modeling as possible to eliminate clearly bad decisions. My decision to walk away from a Fortune 10 company when they contributed 25 % of our revenue was one such example of decision making under uncertainty. It was a tough decision that was taken so firmly and calmly that the head of sales at Infosys at that time thought I was not bothered about the future of the company! I had to explain to him that I did indeed agonize over it but that as a leader I could not be driven by panic since such an important decision required a calm and composed mind. Every leader must have a mental model of his or her business with at best five to seven parameters that determine sensitivity to revenue and net income. It is important to update that model suitably as the business landscape changes. Any leader who cannot quickly do such sensitivity calculation would not be able to take quick and bold decisions. Even today I carry and update the mental model of our business in my mind. Generosity is an essential part of a leader. It is the foundation on which teamwork is built. The ability to share the limelight with ones colleagues, the ability to step aside and give opportunity to younger people when they want that fame, power and glory: and the ability to provide a safety net of advice for them is an important aspect of strengthening the future of an organization. It is not easy to give up power, particularly when you have been the object of so much adulation. I must say that Infosys has done a good job in bringing two such transitions before I leave the portals of this company. What Makes an Organization Worldclass : Scalability is the true test of the endurance of an organization. The ability to grow successfully without losing quality productivity employee investor and customer satisfaction and the spirit of a small company is what makes Infosys a great company. We have grown from 50 customers to 620 customers from 10 projects to 6,500 projects from 100 employees to 130,820 employees from 100 sq ft to 28 million sq ft of built up space and from 100 investors to over 450,000 investors. Such a scalability exercise has been successful thanks to our PSPD model of operation. PSPD stands for Predictability of revenues, Sustainability of such predictability, Profitability of such realized revenues and Derisking. Predictability happens because of a good forecasting system that derives realistic data from the trenches and tempers it with the wisdom of senior business leaders. Sustainability refers to the systems that help the efforts of sales people beating the pavement and meeting customers to make the prediction true, the efforts of our delivery people to deliver quality products on time within budgets, and to the efforts of our finance people raising the invoice on time and collecting money on time. Profitability refers to the systems that help our people make value-based sales, follow rigorous budgeting exercises, control costs, get best value for money and ensure the agreed-upon profitability. Derisking refers to systems that identify risks in various dimensions of our operations – people, geographies, technologies, application areas and services – collect periodic data, review the risk levels and mitigate them. Innovation is the best instrument for creating sustained differentiation. However it must be accepted that revenues for a corporation come from well understood ideas and business models. For example, most of a bank’s revenues will come from borrowing money at a certain rate and lending it at a higher rate. Part of the profits from such models will be used for research and development to generate new ideas. A few of these ideas will be seeded and some of them will become mainstream revenue earners. Therefore, it is very important for a leader to focus on innovation particularly when the times are good. Customers put food on our table. Therefore, we have to have a laser focus on exceeding their expectations, being open and honest with them, and ensuring that they look good in front of their customers. Employees are the only instruments we have to make our customers and investors succeed. Therefore, we have to create an environment of openness, meritocracy; fairness, transparency, honesty and accountability amongst our employees. Our investors understand that businesses will have their share of up and downs. They want us, the management, to level with them at all times. Therefore, â€Å"when in doubt, please disclose† is a good policy for a corporation. Society provides customers, employees, investors, bureaucrats and politicians. Therefore, earning the goodwill of every society that we operate in is extremely important for us. Global benchmarking is a powerful instrument that helps us to improve our self-confidence, compete with the best global competitors and serve our customers better. Success and Failure – We are our best friend and We are our Worst Enemies : We Indians must recognize as we have done at Infosys that we are our main enemies. There is no external enemy. Our failures are because of our lack of commitment to our cause, our inability to accept meritocracy and our indifference to honesty and want of a good work ethic amongst our leaders. Performance alone is the key differentiator. This stems from my belief that performance leads to recognition brings respect and respect brings power. Therefore if India wants to be a superpower as we keep hoping the only instrument we have is performance. We have demonstrated that businesses can be run legally and ethically that it is possible for an Indian company to benchmark with the global best and that any set of youngsters with values hard work team work and a little bit of smartness can indeed be successful entrepreneurs. This way we have enthused millions of young men and women in India. This in my opinion is Infosys’ greatest contribution. I have realized that humility grace and courtesy are genuine only when you have power and glory. That is why the leaders at Infosys have practiced this time and again. Humility provides us the strength of mind to learn from people better than us. Grace and courtesy make us worthy competitors. They also remind us that such glory and power are ephemeral and give us the strength to handle the days when we too could lose our shine. The crucial things we have to do in the future are to recognize our weaknesses; be open-minded about learning from people better than us; learn from our mistakes and not repeat them; be humble, honest and courteous; benchmark with the best in every dimension; use innovation to perform at global levels; and create a worthwhile vision and improve every day. This is how our mantra of focusing on speed imagination and excellence in execution will take this company very far. I have absolutely no doubt about it. I wish Kris and my fellow Infoscions the best in their journey forward. The board has been kind enough to name me the Chairman Emeritus. Therefore, I will always be there to add value if asked. Thanks, Narayana Murthy

Mandatory Arbitration: Discussion Assignment

Week 1 Discussion Assignment – 2 Parts Due 11:59pm Friday Part 1  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Choose one part of the assigned textbook question to answer Part 2  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Choose ONE of the options [pic] Part 1 – Choose one part of the assigned textbook question to answer An important concept this week is jurisdiction. As the text explains, a court must have subject matter jurisdiction to hear a case. Subject matter jurisdiction is rather straight forward – the court must have jurisdic tion to hear the particular type of dispute (see my video for further explanation of this concept).Now look at Question 2 (p. 71) and pick either b, c,  or  d to answer. Explain your answer using legal terms and concepts from this week's readings. (b) Paula, who lives in New York City, wants to sue Dizzy Movie Theatres, whose principal place of business is Dallas. She claims that while she was in Texas on holiday, she was injured by their negligent maintenance of a stairway. She claims damages of $30,000. The general trial court of Texas would have sole jurisdiction. There is no federal court diversity jurisdiction because the amount in dispute is less than $75,000. Top of FormPart 2  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ choose ONE of the options Choice #1 Mandatory Arbitration Read the Mandatory Arbitration section (p. 45) and the supplemental materials provided:  Ã‚  Link to Letter to Congress  and  Arbitration Fairness Act (Proposed), then consider the following hypothetical: Let's suppose you are the CEO and majority shareholder of FacTree, a small manufacturer of artificial trees and flowers. FacTree has about 100 workers who do the routine assembly work for pay ranging from $8 per hour to $15 per hour. They work in two shifts. There are about a dozen supervisors who versee their work. In the past few years there have been five employment lawsuits: three concerned sexual harassment and two concerned discrimination in promotion. All five settled before trial. For three of the suits the company's attorney fees were over $50,000 per suit. For one of the claims, the company paid $250,000 in damages to the employee. Consequently, you are considering mandatory arbitration for all employment disputes. Discuss whether you had ever considered that mandatory arbitration clauses were included in so many of your contracts.Do you agree with imposing theses clauses in so many types of contracts and without negotiation or discussion/notice? Does your opinion differ as the small business owner in the hypothetical above? Explain whether you would or would not impose mandatory arbitration and whether the proposed legislation impacts your decision. Minimum 2 paragraphs. Choice #1 Mandatory Arbitration I was not aware of this term prior to this assignment, now that I’m learning the meaning of the term â€Å"Mandatory Arbitration†, I’m not surprised at all that they are present in so many contracts.Business owners and corporations have the knowledge and know how to always keep the upper hand on consumers. Every contract or agreement that we come across contains sneaky little fine print. CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS GENERALLY PROTECT ONLY AGAINST GOVERNMENTAL ACTS. We’re all guilty of not taking the time to read the fine print. To the point of this hypothetical scenario, although I don’t agree with the concept of Mandatory Arbitration as a private system of justice because it prevents people from exercising their legal right to take a company to court and have their dispute judged on all the available evidence.If I were this CEO, I would use a mandatory arbitration clause as protection for my business. I think the proposed legislation is a fair proposition under the bill, parties involved in a dispute would be allowed a choice between arbitration or a court action when pursuing a complaint. THE CONSTITUION IS A SERIES OF COMPROMISES ABOUT POWER. Choice #2   First Amendment: Free Speech On March 1, 2006, this story appeared in the me dia: Americans apparently know more about The Simpsons than they do about the First Amendment. Far more Americans can identify Lisa, Marge, Maggie, Homer, and Bart than the First Amendment freedoms.Only one in four Americans can name more than one of the five freedoms guaranteed by the First Amendment (freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and petition for redress of grievances. )   But more than half can name at least two members of the cartoon family, according to a survey. [1] Considering this and the  Texas  v. Johnson  case (p. 110): General Question:  Ã‚  With whom do you agree? Explain. Questions for those who agree that the First Amendment protects flag burning: †¢ Isn't it very painful for veterans of foreign wars, some permanently disabled, to see someone burn the flag that they fought for? Did Johnson contribute any valuable ideas when he burned the flag? †¢ If he contributed nothing, why should a state be forced to permit his actions? †¢ If the majority of a state’s citizens want to outlaw flag burning, why shouldn't they be allowed to? Questions for those who argue that the First Amendment does not protect flag burning: †¢ If a state could outlaw flag burning, could it also outlaw burning a copy of the Constitution? A photograph of the flag? A cross? A photograph of the President? †¢ Even if some people regard the flag as special, why should their opinion be the law of the land? Doesn't the anger created by flag burning indicate that it is effective speech? Should we outlaw effective speech and permit only speech that offends no one? Minimum 2 paragraphs and incorporate 2 different terms/phrases from this week's constitutional reading (in all CAPS). [pic] [1]   â€Å"Study: More know ‘The Simpsons' than First Amendment rights,† The USA Today, Mar 1, 2006 http://www. usatoday. com/news/nation/2006-03-01-freedom-poll_x. htm; Simpsons ‘trump, First Amendment, BBC News, Mar 1, 2006 http://news. bbc. co. uk/2/hi/americas/4761294. stm

A Theoretical Perspective on Dowry Deaths in India

jectRESEARCH METHODLOGY Area: Rights of women in India Topic: A Theoretical Perspective on Dowry Deaths in India Objectives: a) To understand the concept of dowry as has originated and evolved in India. b) To conceptualize modern day consequences of dowry system. c) To refer to various laws in India and find out reasons for ineffectuality. d) To analyze the trend lay down in this regard by way of various judicial decisions. e) To critically analyze the reasons for divergence between the object of law with regard to dowry death and the practice evolved by judicial precedents. Research questions: a) What is dowry? b) How has the concept of dowry evolved in India? c) What are the various sections of the statutes applicable to the crime of dowry death? d) What are the drawbacks with respect to judicial intervention in the cases of dowry deaths? e) What can be done by the responsible authorities and by the society at large to prevent the occurrence of dowry deaths? Research tools: The research of this project was carried out with the help of internet and the books available in the library of N. L. U. so the sources are secondary in nature. Case study method has been used to study the concept of dowry death in practicality. In the whole project, uniform footnoting style is adopted in conformity with National Law University. Chapterization: 1) Introduction 2) Evolution of dowry system in India 3) Modern Day Consequences 4) Illegality of Practice: India’s Positive Laws 5) The Ineffectuality of the Dowry Prohibition Act 6) Contemporary Problems of the Modern Dowry System 7) Case study 8) Suggestions ) Conclusion Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION In modern Indian political discourse the custom of dowry is often represented as the cause of serious social problems, including the neglect of daughters, sex-selective abortion, female infanticide, and the harassment, abuse, and murder of brides. Attempts to deal with these problems through legislative prohibition of dowry, however, have resulted in virtually no diminution of either dowry or violence against women. [1] Marriages are made i n heaven, is an adage. A bride leaves the parental home for the matrimonial home, leaving behind sweet memories therewith a hope that she will see a new world full of love in her groom's house. She leaves behind not only her memories, but also her surname, gotra and maidenhood. She expects not only to be a daughter in law, but a daughter in fact. Alas! The alarming rise in the number of cases involving harassment to the newly wed girls for dowry shatters the dreams. In-laws are characterized to be outlaws for perpetrating a terrorism which destroys matrimonial home. The terrorist is dowry, and it is spreading tentacles in every possible direction. [2] Imagine the plight of a young woman, newly wed and thrust into an unfamiliar situation. She is surrounded by those she has only just met, her new husband and his family. They regard her as a means to an end – she is little more than a device by which to enrich them. She finds herself emotionally and physically harassed day and night because her parents cannot meet all of her in-laws’ dowry demands. Her parents have already exhausted much of their life savings and have little left to give. But because she is a dutiful wife, a good daughter, an obedient woman, she stays at her in-laws, resigned to her fate. [3] Then, one evening, while she is working in the kitchen, she feels a terrible chill. Someone has doused her with a pail of kerosene and another is about to throw a burning match. Can she save herself by taking off her clothes? No. When doused with kerosene or gasoline, a human being’s first feeling is sharp cold. Instantaneously, aided by one’s own body heat, the kerosene evaporates by drawing out the young wife’s warmth. The match is thrown. She bursts into a ball of flames. A living human being, with a warm body, full of love, hope, and trust towards what should have been a new and exciting phase in her life – a life terminated in its prime – all for a motor car, a scooter, a bicycle, a refrigerator, or a television. This is the shocking reality of the contemporary dowry marriage in India and the frightening experience faced by many young women. Each year, thousands of these young women are murdered, through what has been dubbed â€Å"bride-burnings†,[4] by husbands and in-laws seeking increased dowry demands. While the practice of dowry is commonly perceived by the international community as one of Indian custom and culture, in its current form it is more accurately described as a social phenomenon believed to bestow a greater social status upon the recipient. Originally designed to be a gift given out of affection at the time of a daughter’s marriage, today the dowry system has turned into a perverted version of an ancient and respected custom. It has now become an obligatory transaction that places a heavy impact on a family’s financial and social status and a young wife’s welfare. In the last four decades, dowry negotiations between the families of brides and grooms have escalated into continuing demands even after the agreed-upon amount is given. Even more disquieting are the increasing numbers and the ways in which young wives are killed when their husbands and in-laws are dissatisfied with the amount of dowry given or when additional demands are not met. Frequently, as the violence and abuse escalates, if the young wife is not murdered she is driven to commit suicide. In this project, I will discuss about the historical perspective of dowry as well as the modern evolution of this system. Thereafter is a reference to its evolution and its consequences. It takes the position that the modern practice of dowry is actually the product of economic and socio-cultural processes and modern-day dowry is a relatively recent transformation into a means of extortion by the groom and his family, having no religious justification. Subsequently, this paper analyzes relevant Indian positive laws currently in place to prevent dowry deaths while the next part examines the reasons behind the unenforceability behind these laws. A chapter quantifies the phenomenon of dowry death and highlights the contemporary statistics. Chapter 2 A HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE ON THE ORIGINS OF DOWRY The definition of â€Å"dowry† is commonly understood to mean the property that a bride brings with her at the time of marriage. [5]This custom, which traditionally was the voluntary giving of gifts by the bride’s father to his daughter, his son-in-law, and sometimes his daughter’s in-laws at the time of marriage, has been in practice since ancient times in India. [6]However, like many other customs, it has evolved over the course of centuries. Because a Hindu marriage is a sanskara or sacrament, the tenth ordained by the sacred scriptures of the Hindus, [7]an orthodox Hindu must marry. The Hindu scriptures recognized eight forms of marriage, four approved and four unapproved. The two leading forms of marriage were the Brahma and Asura forms. In the most common of the approved forms, the Brahma[8] form, the bridegroom is invited and the bride is given to him as a gift by her father. It was within this form of marriage that the tradition of giving gifts prevailed and the father would give his daughter as many gifts as he could afford. [9] Likewise, of the unapproved, the most common was the Asura[10] form which meant an outright purchase of the bride. Accordingly, all marriages in which the bride was given without receiving any kind of consideration from the bridegroom came to be called Brahma, and where any payment was made, came to be known as Asura. [11] The validity of the Brahma form of marriage is due largely to its ancient religious significance. In comparison, the Asura form of marriage was eventually condemned because it was in contrast to Hindu religious ideas . An approved marriage among Hindus has always been considered a kanyadan,[12] an ideological principle, to which dowry, or gift-giving as it was originally intended, was inextricably linked. A customary nuptial, kanyadan reflects the idea of the gift of a virgin daughter into marriage to the groom and his family. Articulated dowry demands were forbidden under this ideology, as the bride and the â€Å"dowry† were gifts to be freely and voluntarily given by the father of the bride. Combined with the fact that the giving of one’s daughter and her dowry constituted a holy act, dowry was originally intended to be limited to the holiest and highest of the four castes, the Brahmins, the priests of the Hindu caste system. [13] The custom of dowry originated during the Vedic period of 1500-500 B. C. amongst the North Hindu Rajputs. At the time of its origin it was practiced only among the Brahmin caste, and the religious significance arose from the ancient scripts of Manu, a holy text[14] that ordained that dowry should be restricted to the Brahmin caste. Nonetheless, even in the early days, families who were wealthy enough to give gifts to the groom and the bride’s matrimonial family were allowed to do so. [15] These high caste Hindus considered kanyadan as one of the sacred paths to salvation. [16] These gifts could hardly be called dowry within the contemporary meaning of the word as they were gifts freely given after the marriage as signs of affection. Further, there is no account that grooms tried to make fortunes by demanding large amounts of valuable gifts. In those days, if any such request was made, it was rejected and deemed completely unreasonable since the prevailing view was that the groom was taking the bride away and stripping her family of her services. Thus, traditionally dowry was also viewed as a way to demonstrate one’s social status and caste. Even within the Brahmin caste, the giving of dowry demonstrated status and strengthened social ties. Unlike today’s practice, historically dowry rarely enabled individuals to advance up the social and economic ladder. Moreover; these gifts were limited to those families who could freely give them and whose socio-economic status permitted it. B. Traditional Dowry Customs Historically dowry, or the act of kanyadan, had a ritual significance in controlling the marriage process and limiting the scope and scale of gift giving. When a woman married in India she was valued as the moral force of the family. Thus, the meaning behind dowry was fundamentally religious and symbolic, and the ritual Brahmin practice of kanyadan gave the bride power and status; accordingly, both she and her dowry were considered a sacred gift. This meritorious act of kanyadan consisted of two aspects. Stridhan is the classical notion behind an Indian woman’s marriage wealth. Given directly to the bride, it was meant to be an asset to her in times of adversity and, under Hindu law, was her own property. Dakshina was a gift given out of affection from the family of the bride to the groom and included any continuous gifts made after the marriage. Hence, traditional dowry was formerly confined to specific gifts for specific purposes. Stridhan Literally, the word stridhan means women’s property. 17] Given as a sign of affection and as a symbol of the natal family’s ability to take care of their daughter, this portion of the dowry was intended to equip a woman for her new life. The bride received these gifts, which consisted of mostly movable property such as household possessions, clothing, bedding, furniture, utensils, Literally translated, Stri mean women’s and dhan means property and precious jewe lry, either before or after the marriage. Any gifts given to the bride by friends and other relatives before or after the marriage or at the time of the bridal procession were also considered part of stridhan. The Dharmashastras, an ancient holy text of the Hindus, suggest that stridhan was the bride’s property over which she enjoyed complete control and which would provide her with financial protection in times of adversity. [18] Thus, stridhan’s most critical concept was that the woman had absolute ownership of the property. This implied two important characteristics. First, a woman had full rights as to its disposal and division as it was her absolute property. She was therefore free to sell, give, mortgage, lease, or exchange it as she pleased. [19]Second, upon her death, a woman’s stridhan passed to her own female heirs,[20] i. . usually her daughters. Before the Hindu Succession Act of 1956 (â€Å"Succession Act†), Hindu women were not allowed to inherit immovable property such as land or buildings; they were only allowed to inherit the stridhan of their mothers. [21] Thus, stridhan was meant as a substitute for the non-inclusion of the daughter in the inh eritance process. [22]However, section 14 of the Succession Act now provides that â€Å"any property possessed by a female Hindu is held by her as full owner†¦Ã¢â‚¬ [23]The legislation applied to immovable property in addition to the movable property, acquired through any means. 24]It also decreed that women were entitled to inherit equally along with their brothers, thus allowing them to inherit property from their fathers. [25] 2. Dakshina The Dharamashastras further stipulated that the meritorious act of kanyadan was incomplete until the groom was given a dakshina. In kanyadan, the bride was the gift given to the groom, and a gift or dan has to be accompanied by a subsidiary gift, i. e. dakshina. When a dakshina was given to a Brahmin priest, it was given without any material reciprocation. The priest in turn, blessed the giver and deemed the gift sacred, thereby elevating the religious status of the giver. Thus, the giving of dakshina is based off the religious principle of gift-giving to a Brahmin priest. The dakshina was a nominal gift, usually some gold or cash, that was given purely out of affection directly to the groom. In earlier times, this bequest was voluntary, not compulsory, and the amount or lack of the gift did not create an impediment to the completion of the marriage. Again, the bride’s family gave dakshina only in accordance with their financial ability. Therefore, associated with the religious symbolism of dakshina, traditional dowry also represented a gift of affection from the natal parents to their future son-in-law, consisting of celebrations, gifts, and money, for which they received blessings, status, and perhaps the knowledge of having arranged a secure future for their daughter. Dowry as a traditional concept, then, represented the women’s right to property, which would be transferred to daughters at the time of their marriage as a type of â€Å"pre-mortem† inheritance. Since marriage is a required sacrament, the token dakshina given to the groom, as completion of the act of kanyadan, paved the pathway to salvation for the bride’s family. Originally constituting the inheritance of the bride, dowry, as it is known today, eventually took on the meaning of a gift meant for the couple. This gift, comprised of the stridhan belonging to the wife and the dakshina of the groom, was usually managed by the husband and could later be used by the couple as an inheritance or dowry for their own children. Ideally then, the conjugal estate encompassed the dowry brought by a daughter and the inheritance given to a son at the time of their marriage. Hence, the dowry system as originally intended was meant to provide security to a new couple as they began their new life together. C. Modern Evolution of Dowry It is essential to reiterate that the traditional ideology of the kanyadan marriage was practiced only among the high priestly Brahmin caste, and the wealthy upper castes. Within this kanyadan marriage, stridhan was not part of the dowry as it was given directly to the bride and she could dispose of it as she saw fit. Dakshina symbolized an affectionate portion given to the future son-in-law in accordance with a family’s financial ability. This social transfer of wealth within a cultural framework provided not only the fulfillment of a material obligation of the bride’s family to the bride, but also served as the moral basis for the establishment of a relationship between the two families. [26] The once voluntary affectionate portion of Dakshina is what has transformed into today’s modern dowry. Consequently, dowry marriages are equated with Brahma kanyadan marriages. Nonetheless, not until the middle of the 19th century, did ordinary families became obligated to provide elaborate dowries, the cost of which might ruin a family, or the lack of which might impede the settlement of a their daughter’s marriage. 1. Increase in Prevalence and Resulting Effects of Hypergamy It was at this time that hypergamous marriages came into vogue in some regions, and ompetition for grooms came to include payments in the form of cash, precious metals, and other valuables. [27]Hypergamy refers to the custom of marrying a man from a superior grade or clan with general notion being that a female should wed a superior male, thereby marrying into a higher division, but under no circumstances marrying into a lower one. A major consequence of hypergamy is status asymmetry between the m ale’s side and the female’s side, resulting in the notion that the groom’s family is superior to the bride’s family. Thus the latter improve their status through marriage while the former secure cash, jewelry, and other costly items. Hence, the giving of dowry is integral to a hypergamous marriage and it was in northern India where this ideology was broadly practiced. In contrast, among the South Indian castes, as previously stated, the custom of bride-price was universal. This custom, if anything, resulted in favor of the female’s family. [28] However, because it later came to be condemned as an Asura marriage by the Brahmin law givers, bride-price became unpopular among most of Indian society. 29]The law givers interpreted the asura marriages as involving the sale of the brides and their own form, kanyadan marriages, as involving the gift of the bride. If a bride’s family accepted payment, the element of gratuity that is essential to kanyadan would be destroyed, and consequently the notion that the bride’s family should give but not receive became very popular. [30] The comme rcial aspect of the bride-price transaction was regarded as a taint upon the sacredness of marriage. Thus, kanyadan was preferred because it was free of this commercial element, [31]and the Brahma form of marriage prevailed. Nonetheless, the ideology of the hypergamous kanyadan marriage allows families, by resorting to an attraction of wealth, to obtain desirable bridegrooms from higher classes and thereby elevate their own status. Furthermore, the kanyadan marriage requires the giving of dakshina. It is ironic that dakshina, or â€Å"bride-groom’s† price, was never deemed objectionable to the Brahma form, despite its similarity to bride price. 32]In any event, the system of dowry spread throughout the Southern regions of India and a new status asymmetry was introduced among the dowry paying castes. To that extent, the South became much like the North and the modern day dowry system has widely replaced the institution of bride-price. 2. Increase in Access to and Emulation of Higher Castes The successful replacement of bride-price by dowry may be attributed to the fact that dowry became associated with prestige as a consequence of preference by the higher caste groups. The key to the increase in dowry-giving throughout the regions of India may be that lower caste groups desired to emulate and aspire to the system of dowry as a way of following the example of the higher caste groups. Consequently, this may also explain the concomitant increase in the dowry phenomenon and resulting bride burning. It was not until the last few decades that emulation such as this has become a relatively new phenomenon. It has been noted that while both bride-price and bride-groom price, i. e. owry were followed in castes with an internal hierarchy, in the past, the dominant castes did not allow emulation by the lower castes. This sharp increase in emulation has been attributed to improved economic conditions and increased education, as well as greater access to the organized sector. Furthermore, since the time of Indian independence, increased inter-caste mixing in schools and in jobs has provided the lower groups with access to the higher groups, enabling them to obse rve their ways and adopt them. This change from bride-price to dowry has been detrimental to women and their families because the contemporary dowry system has evolved into a practice that causes financial ruin to brides’ families, endangers young wives’ lives and well-being, and lowers the status of women, as well as that of their families. Finally, because marriage in India is believed to be a necessity in order to fulfill religious duties and is required by Hindi ideology, it is out of the question not to marry off a daughter. Thus, many families who are unable to afford elaborate dowries or meet continuing demands find themselves between the proverbial rock and a hard place. Chapter 3 MODERN DAY CONSEQUENCES OF DOWRY SYSTEM Today, it is believed that the present dowry system has its origin in the twin Hindu marriage rites of kanyadan, of which stridhan was a part, and dakshina. However, to call stridhan, the presents made to the bride at or after the marriage, as a requisite part of dowry is a mistake, since it completely misunderstands the very concept of stridhan. The stridhan given to a woman at the time of marriage cannot be equated to dowry because in traditional times it was a woman’s own property that fell under her absolute power, and moreover, these items were given directly to her. Modern-day dowry is not dakshina or stridhan. It is and has always been property that has been obtained under duress, coercion, or force, and cannot be categorized as presents made to the groom or bride. The distinction between the two is that dowry is essentially property which is extorted from the bride’s family while presents or gifts are property that is voluntarily given. Furthermore, the amount of money and goods that are given in the contemporary dowry system are enormous, evolving into a few lakhs of rupees, as well as furniture, electronics, costly clothing, and jewelry. In addition, the bride’s family must pay all of the wedding expenses, including any travel and lodging needs of the groom and his party. Moreover, payment is demanded, directly or indirectly, by the groom and/or his kin. Modern-day dowry has become the property extorted from the father of the bride by the groom and his parents, and therefore cannot be considered presents given out of affection. It is an important distinction in practice that modern dowry constitutes essentially extortion while the presents of the past were given voluntarily and willingly. Thus, modern day dowry is more in line with the unidirectional flow of cash and other goods from the bride’s family to the groom’s family, whereas in the South of India the modern phenomenon of dowry is a new development. The dowry that is given in the higher caste weddings in India today, and which has permeated to the lower castes, is an entirely new phenomenon and should not be related to the traditional ideas of kanyadan and stridhan. Moreover, Vedic scholars boldly articulated that there is no reference to â€Å"dowry† in any of the Vedas or other ancient texts, thus destroying any religious sanction of the modern day practice. Nonetheless, apart from Indian society’s maintained continual religious sanctification of the modern-day dowry practice, the contemporary system has advanced due to factors such as the position of these women in the patriarchal joint family as well as their perceived subordinate position in Indian society; both of which result in a perpetual forced dependence on men and further lowers their status. In addition, the traditional custom has been warped from gifts given only at the time of marriage into a propagation of events, at any of which â€Å"dowry† is expected to be and usually is demanded. A. Cultural Shift in the Perception of the Status of Women As a result of archaic laws and evolving customs pertaining to family and property, Indian society confers power and status to males and their families; conversely, females and families with females suffer automatically from low status. However, Indian culture did not always view women is such low esteem. During the Vedic period from birth a female was treated equally with a boy. It was expected that she would be given an education and these educated girls had an effective say in the selection of their marriage partners. It wasn’t until later, beginning with the late Aryan period 300 BC that the status and role of women shifted dramatically due to increasing Brahmin influence, and women began to be viewed with decreasing status. 1. The Subordinate Position of Women in Indian Society The status of women today in Indian society is a fundamental reason why the modern-day dowry system continues to perpetuate. The change from bride-price to dowry has been identified as the major catapult in decreasing the status of Indian women. The change from bride-price to dowry was an attempt to improve the social status of a family because dowry was associated with the higher social groups. [33]As a result of this change to a hypergamous ideology where families of females are viewed lower on the status hierarchy than are families of males, a female also additionally suffers from a loss of status even within her natal family, as she is now perceived as a liability rather than as an asset. 34] From birth she is viewed as a burden because her family will have to expend valuable resources for her care and upbringing although upon marriage she will leave her family to become a member of her husband’s family, and consequently be unable to support and care for them in their old age. Further, there is the looming obligation of having to amass large quantities of money and goods so that when she is old enough to marry, her new family is sufficiently induced to take on the burden of her maintenance. For these reasons, Indians are more likely to abort a female fetus, murder female infants, and favor sons in terms of food, medical treatment, and education. The female infanticide is another effect of the dowry system in India. Medical clinics throughout the country provide amniocentesis tests to detect the gender of a fetus. [35] Those fetuses that are female are often subsequently aborted because the eventual financial burden of a woman’s dowry makes a female infant highly undesirable. Additionally, there continues to be a discrepancy in the sex ratio of the Indian population due to poor health care and nutrition for girls and women. Indeed, India is one of the few countries that have a higher population of men than women. The female-to-male ratio in India has actually decreased from 972:1000 in 1901 to 900:1000 in 2000. It is highly likely that a daughter will be fed poorly and rarely taken to a doctor when ill. Ironically, over the last century, healthcare has become widely accessible and women outnumber men in almost every other country. It would seem to follow that the higher ratio of men to women in India would mean that there should be more of a demand for women, especially in a society that considers marriage a religious obligation. However, as the tradition of dowry has grown increasingly distorted over the centuries and women are perceived as a future liability, it has led many families to prefer to have only boys. Perpetuations of customs such as dowry reduce the status of women because people view the birth of a girl with apprehension and unhappiness. Because marriage is controlled by the family groups, and a women is expected to not only obey her in-laws but also her husband, this provides for her perpetual dependence: when unmarried she is dependent on her father, after marriage she is dependent on her husband, and if widowed she is dependent on her son. Thus, due to her economic dependence and inferior social status, she suffers a great lost of self-respect, independence, and autonomy. Nonetheless, because Indian society views females as a valueless burden and because Indian marriages have essentially become business deals made for profit, Indian society implicitly sanctions the contemporary practice of dowry. Consequently, enormous pressure is placed on brides and their families, resulting in their exploitation and an increase in dowry-related violence. 2. Position of Indian Women in the Patriarchal Joint –Family The structure of Indian family life has also fostered modern development of the dowry system. The extended or joint family has prevailed in India,[36] particularly in the rural areas that constitute most of the country. Because of the dominance of the joint-family, the Hindu community is dominated by the thought that children are the property of their parents. Even after marriage, the son is expected to set a good example and obey his elders. When a woman marries in India, she moves into her husband’s home, and accordingly, she is expected to behave in a similar, if not more subservient, fashion as her husband. This provides the justification for the joint-family to assert control over the bride’s portion of the dowry, the stridhan. Thus, the new wife often finds herself at the bottom of the pecking order and is forced to bear the brunt of the labor in the house. In addition, because begetting a son is the goal of a Hindu marriage and a woman reached her highest status within the family structure in her role as a mother to a son, the family heir, the mother-in-law’s need to be in a close relationship with her son puts her in a diametrically opposed relationship with the new bride. An Indian mother’s long-term status and financial security in the joint-family depends on her son because it is he who will provide for and take of her when her husband dies. When the son marries, it is seen as a threat to her security and thus, the relationship between a daughter-in-law and mother-in-law is inherently strained because of the mother-in-law’s need to protect her source of security and power. As a result of the hierarchical structure of the joint-family, one way a mother-in-law asserts her power is via the dowry process. If she is unhappy and has not already harassed her daughter-in-law, her son will know about it, who in turn, because his loyalties lie with his mother, will harass his wife. It is ironic that the key manner that the contemporary dowry system is maintained is via these relationships between the daughters-in-law and mothers-in-law. The daughters-in-law give in and allow this system to perpetuate because they too, one day want to be and will be in the position of their mother-in-law. 134 Thus, in the absence of another source of security and livelihood, women end up supporting a system that has and continues to oppress them. Furthermore, even when women were recipients of the stridhan portion, this portion, could consist of only moveable property such as household items and jewels. These items were not considered valuable in economic terms. This is because women in India did not receive land as dowry, and land is a premium asset in a society where agriculture is the primary means of generating wealth. As a result, the inheritance of moveable property that they did receive was consequently of little material value. In the Indian joint-family, land has been the source of property and inheritance for thousands of years. As state previously, property, before the Succession Act, could only be inherited by male heirs; thus the only â€Å"inheritance† that a daughter received was her dowry. Consequently, the original concept of dowry was not an ill-intentioned one since it helped start a woman in her new home by providing amenities that would help her and her young husband in beginning a life together. Although the traditional dowry was intended to be a source of inheritance of gifts and money for the daughter, the conjugal control of a dowry interferes with the organizational power of the joint-family, especially because the new couple shares a home with the family of the groom. Given the structure of the joint-family, the dowry is of little material wealth and the Indian bride often receives little direct benefit from it. Moreover, the young couple is not free to regard the property brought by the wife as their own marital product. The conjugal estate normally comes under the control of the patriarch of the joint-family and so brides are guaranteed no control of their dowry. B. Economic Shift from the Caste System to Class Divisions within the Social Structure The institution of marriage of ancient and medieval India was most affected by the socio-political and economic changes which accompanied the establishment of British rule in India. The period of British colonialism, from the late 17th to the mid-20th century, is frequently identified as the turning point at which the dowry system developed into its modern day form. This transition to dowry represented an influential historical turn between the values of marriage as a spiritual union and marriage as an economic union. 1. Remnants from British Rule: The Impact of Capitalism One of the primary reasons why the meaning and practice of dowry has been so drastically altered is that class has replaced caste as a prominent measure of social status in modern India. The old custom has thus been transformed from a religious symbol into a vital source of income for families desperate to meet pressing social needs. [37] As a result of this transformation, the giving of dowry among Hindus is now publicly, ideologically, and morally validated even though in early times the various aspects of dowry were voluntarily performed from love and affection in accordance with the financial position of the bride’s father. With the introduction of a cash conomy into India and the post-colonial economic crisis of the 1970s, combined with the already low status of women, dowry and dowry-related murders increased, becoming a ready form of wealth procurement to be used by the groom and his family. A resulting effect was the re-definition of the social hierarchy; whereas caste formerly determined social status, class began to take precedence. Thus, the centuries-old tradition of dowry became a means for an upwardly mobile family to demonstrate their wealth and make ties among higher social groups. Instead of giving stridhan directly to the bride upon marriage, much of it began to be given to the joint-family. Moreover, the aspects of kanyadan and dakshina became entangled and came to be known as the single institution of dowry. During the period of British colonization, in order to obtain a dowry, compulsion, coercion, and force increasingly began to be used, and ultimately the majority of marriages arose from a bargaining-process. Introduction of forces such as monetization, education, and the organized sector by the British into India added to the burden on a woman’s family to improve their status. Consequently, modern dowry can be viewed as entirely the result of British rule. The British introduced a higher standard of living and a more materialistic way of life. More importantly, the British exploitation of their powerful position imposed a sense of servility, humiliation, and inferiority on the Indian people. The Indian people resented their subservience and became increasingly class conscious in their values and their way of life. Indian society became increasingly aware of the potential of money and conscious of a materialistic approach towards life. These two items coupled together, generated a demand for ready cash in addition to gifts in the marriage negotiations. Encouraged by these new cultural values of the modern world, the desire to acquire unearned wealth, under a misguided feeling that such a transaction was a blessing of God, gained legitimacy and acceptance among Hindu society. Deeply ingrained Hindu customs that emphasized moral character, honesty, and service to God ultimately became polluted by an increase in â€Å"competitive spirit, emotional compulsions, and unaccounted bribery†, values that resulted indirectly or directly by the British domination. The colonialism of India was new unnatural, element that threw the natural order out of kilter, and Indian society reacted with increased competitiveness, which ultimately revealed itself in the perversion of the old dowry custom. 2. Marriage as a Market Transaction Due to the impact of high prices on the standard of living and the longer time period over which dowry may be demanded, it has become increasingly difficult for families to spare enough money to adhere to this custom, especially given its present expectations. The amount of dowry given can either typically depend on the financial status of the bride’s family, today an element whose consideration has increasingly diminished, or on the explicit and direct demands made by the groom’s parents. It is this second and growing phenomenon that leads to the escalating dowry-related violence, and victimization of the wife and her family. Upper class families generally give ornaments, such as gold or silver, inset with costly stones, like diamonds, sapphires, or rubies. These families can also afford and do give furniture, utensils, crockery and as well as costly items such as radios, sewing machines, refrigerators, and even vehicles of transportation. Lower class families, whose income is generally less than a hundred rupees per month, give a few silver ornaments. Among these poor people, utensils and crockery are considered essential because they feel that the woman must have the kitchenware to cook food. Due to their low economic position, it is in these poorer classes that this custom has become difficult to maintain. Families will often borrow money to fulfill their desire to give more and more to their daughters. However, they then incur heavy debts that can take years to repay. Middle class families however cannot afford elaborate ornaments, and generally give ornaments of gold inset with only ordinary stones or those purely of gold. Education and an expanding economy, as well as increased government employment, have created this urban middle class. It is estimated that eighty-five percent of dowry deaths and eighty percent of dowry harassment or violence situations occur in either the middle or lower classes. Indeed, this phenomenon seems to be most prevalent in the emerging upwardly mobile middle class and the highest increases are not among the poorest but among those with middle incomes. With urbanization and pressures of a cash-based economy, dakshina is emphasized and stridhan has become less important. Dowry is seen as a replacement for the money that will be used to educate the groom so that he can then move among a higher class and later command a higher dowry. Moreover, as the groom becomes accustomed to a higher standard of living, and thus certainly have more needs for ready cash, he will come to expect that those needs will be met through dowry received upon his marriage. Furthermore, today, as opposed to Rajput times and as practiced by the Brahmins, the bride's family uses the practice of dowry to attract families of higher status and power than their own. These connections are used to enhance the status of the bride’s parents and achieve material gains. The amount of dowry that a man of a particular profession or position in life can command fluctuates just like any other market commodity. It is common knowledge that implicit price tags are attached to prospective grooms depending on their education, status, occupation, and income, as well as any other factors. For instance, men having government jobs, or being in a profession, such as CPAs and engineers, and living in cities have prestige and are considered to be in short supply, thus they can command higher dowries. Also, the higher the education of the groom and the more prestigious the profession, i. e. , doctors and lawyers, the higher the dowry demands. These potential grooms are considered such a valuable commodity that the parents of girls feel they must be competitive if they want to secure such a â€Å"commodity† for their daughter. In contrast, women are reduced to the level of chattel, to be sold or bartered away according to the whims of the men and their families. It is as if a discount sale coupon is tagged on to the brides in order to engage them in this highly competitive matrimonial market to make them more marketable. While natal families do have to bear heavy costs, for some there is some benefit in engaging in this modern dowry system. If the potential in-laws have a son who is educated, earning a salary, and moving among a wealthier group of people, the potential bride’s family may try to move their family’s position into the in-laws higher group by virtue of the daughter’s marrying into this group. Because they are outsiders and of a poorer background, they will have to offer a higher dowry to accomplish the social climb. However, once they are part of the new social group, they can demand an equally high or higher amount of dowry for their son when he marries. One might think that increasing literacy and education would reduce the effect of dowry however it has actually raised dowry demands and increased economic pressures on natal families. Families of higher-educated girls seek higher educated boys, and the higher education adds value to the boy’s worth as a market â€Å"commodity†. Thus families are hit with a dual price-tag because they not only have to pay for the higher education for their daughter, but the educated potential groom, as a more valuable commodity, can also command a higher price in the matrimonial market. Because the Indian marriage market is essentially an implicit market in bride and groom attributes, the resulting market equilibrium appears to associate a price with each match. Consequently, the amount of dowry given is often considered this equilibrium price given for a â€Å"good† match. Ironically, these are not good matches as the girl’s best interests are rarely, if ever taken into account. These marriages, rather than being the religious sacrament stipulated by the Dharmashastras, have become a commercial vehicle to fulfill materialistic needs of grooms and their families and social needs of bride’s families without ever taking into account any needs of the brides. 3. Proliferation of Events where Dowry is bestowed Dowry giving and taking in India has now come to cover many different things in different circumstances. A significant feature of dowry is that it has come to constitute an elaborate series of payments extending over a long period of time. It no longer merely means the property that a bride gets at the time of her marriage, but has been extended to include items or property given well before or long after the marriage. Furthermore, families now have more opportunities to take advantage of the dowry-giving custom. In some Indian states such as Punjab and Haryana, a pre-engagement ceremony, referred to as Thaka has become prominent. The Thaka ceremony affirms the relationship established between two families and signifies that negotiations have been initiated for a matrimonial alliance. The potential bride’s parents, along with a few close relatives, visit the home of the man to whom they expect their daughter will be shortly engaged. 185 They take plenty of sweets and fruits, and cash for the potential groom-to-be, as well as for his parents and close relatives. 186 If there is no Thaka ceremony, the first series of payments commence with the engagement ceremony and conclude with the departure of the bride to her matrimonial home. In the Hindu community, there is a formal engagement ceremony before the marriage here goods (â€Å"gifts†) are customarily given. If there are any festivals or holidays between the Thaka ceremony or engagement ceremony and the actual wedding, the bride’s parents will also send gifts to the groom’s parents. The actual day of marriage is also an obvious time when gifts will be asked for and given. Today, the arrival of the bride in her new home, a day that in ancient Indian times was a blessing for the groomâ₠¬â„¢s family to welcome their bow or daughter-in-law, today constitutes yet another situation where the bride will be expected to arrive bearing gifts. The second series of payments can persist long after the marriage, sometimes continuing for months, even years after. At the very least, throughout the first year of marriage, festive and religious holidays mark situations where the bride’s parents feel obligated to send presents, regardless of whether it is demanded by the groom’s parents. [38] Especially if the girl is pregnant, the groom’s family will also demand some gift or payment. This sending of presents is not done out of affection, but for fear of social condemnation that good dowry was not given, or out of fear that their daughter may be harassed and sent back to her natal home. In addition, these dowry demands not only place pressure on a new bride and her parents, but can also involve her entire extended family. [39] C. Violent Derailment of the Traditional Dowry System The abuse of the custom of dowry has eroded and aborted the original meaningful function of traditional dowry, i. e. , kanyadan, and the giving of stridhan and dakshina. The once intended safety net for the bride and the gift of affection for the groom has corrupted into a price-tag for the groom and a noose for the bride. No longer merely a system of giving voluntary gifts, the modern dowry system has become Indian society’s primary method for manipulating one’s family status and wealth. It is largely distinguished from the older traditional dowry system by the presence of compulsion, which is largely due to the fierce competition in the marriage market. Today, the underlying motivation behind the giving of dowry is the need of the bride’s family to improve their family standing or status. Stridhan, the classical notion prescribing a woman’s marriage wealth, has been violated in four respects in contemporary Indian society. First, any item that is transferred as stridhan along with the bride at the time of marriage, and in ancient times was given directly to her, may now be taken into sole possession by the groom and his family. Second, the groom’s parents use the stridhan portion brought by their daughter-in-law, to enhance the dowry given in acquiring husbands for their own daughters, if they have any, or for any other conceivable purpose. Third, dowry demands continue even after the marriage and can be perpetuated indefinitely, thus always being a ready source of cash and the latest materialistic goods. Finally, spouting religious meaning behind this taking of dowry, the groom’s family justify their demands; however the cash transaction requested by and ultimately given to the groom’s parents is not mentioned anywhere in the traditional Brahman dictum. In earlier times a women was not allowed to inherit property, thus the stridhan portion was meant to provide her with a share of her parental wealth. Thus â€Å"dowry† was a social means of transferring the natural rights of inheritance to a daughter via the marriage process. Thus, the original underlying motivation was to provide the bride with a pre-mortem inheritance and to overcome the restrictions of the early Succession laws. However, the Succession Act of 1956 decreed that women were entitled to inherit equally along with their brothers, thus allowing them to also inherit property. It recognized an equal right of Indian women to inherit property and for the 1st time conferred absolute ownership to her. Due to this legislation, the traditional reasons underlying the giving of stridhan, to safeguard the woman and her economic well-being, have ceased to exist. Hereinafter, a model of dowry deaths is discussed whereby various concepts pertaining to victimization of women for dowry are discussed. The model falls into two parts, the first of which, influenced by socio-cultural and victimological concepts, attempts to identify the kind of marriage arrangements that lead to a potential problem. These are groups of variables 1-9 in Figure 1. The second part of the model is influenced by routine activity and rational choice perspectives, and attempts to deal with the more dynamic aspects of the phenomenon after marriage (groups 10-14). Groups 1 and 2 cover the socio-cultural factors (patriarchal traditional society; dowry system) that provide the context for the development of dowry problems. Dowry problems frequently arise within urban, middle class families with conservative outlooks. Groups 3,4, 5 and 6 concern the kinds of family and the needs of both the husband's and wife's families before the marriage. Economic needs are important for both families. The husband's family may be trying to obtain resources through the dowry, by capitalizing on the husband's earning power. The wife's family may be trying to protect resources. The relative status of the families is also relevant, with the husband's family generally being more influential. Groups 7 and 8 deal with the personal characteristics of the wife and the husband. Wives are more likely to be victimized if they are submissive, young and less educated. Husbands are more likely to be aggressors, or to fall in with their parent's aggression, if they are weak and emotionally dependent. Husbands who are older and better educated than their wives are more likely to dominate their spouses and commit acts of violence against them. The marriage contract (Group 9) attempts to reconcile the needs of the husband's and wife's families. The kind of arrangements that appear to lead to trouble include, for example, a large dowry not paid on full at the time of the marriage and dowries with non-cash items over which disagreements arise about the quality of the goods supplied. Misunderstandings are likely to be greater if the families do not know each other well and have used a middleman to arrange to contract Group 10 deals with the living situation after marriage. In the joint family system, quarrels may center around the wife's insufficient dowry especially when the wife is unemployed and not well enough trained in housework to satisfy the husband's family. As marriages are generally arranged, the chances of incompatibility between the husband and wife are high and the probability of disputes correspondingly great. The bride's parents will generally be unsupportive because of the prevailing belief that once a girl is married her parents should not interfere in her new life, even if she comes to them for help. Even where they are supportive, they cannot come quickly to help her if they live at a distance. The risk of physical abuse is increased when the husband's family lives in a quiet neighborhood or if there are no neighbors. That bride burning is basically an urban phenomenon may be partly due to the busy life in cities neighbors tend to have little time to get involved in each other's affairs. The busy routines of urban dwellers thus leaves unguarded the defenseless young bride. Groups 11 and 12 deal with the reactions of the husband and wife after marriage. The wife's personality will affect her reaction to her marital problems. She might tolerate the harassment and mistreatment so as not to bring any shame on her parents. Since she is dependent on her husband both emotionally and economically she may completely loose confidence in herself. The fact that in many cases the husband has not chosen the wife may cause him much unhappiness because he finds her unattractive or incompatible with his friends. These feelings of frustration may fuel his demands that the wife get more money from her parents. Groups 13 and 14 deal with the husband's and wife's decision making. If pressures upon the wife became intolerable she may decide to take matters into her own hands and end her life. The husband on the other hand, as a result of dissatisfaction at work and in his married life, may have affairs with other women, get into other activities like gambling and take to alcohol or drugs. He may choose to deal with his difficulties and frustrations by plotting to kill his wife. This decision will be influenced by a perceived low risk of detection, the availability of an easy method of killing his wife, and the possibility of solving his problems by marrying some other woman with a better dowry settlement. Fig. 1 A Model of Dowry Deaths[40] Gropu Group 1 G G Group 2 Group 3 Group 4 Group 5 Group 6 Group 7 Group 9 Group 8 Group 11 Group 10 Group 12 Group Group 13 Group 14 Marriage in India, regarded as the alliance of two families, is a huge turning point in an individual’s life and should be a joyous and blessed occasion. Yet there is nothing to prevent the groom and his family from making initial exorbitant demands, continual demands, or using the dowry money as they do not see fit, nor do previous fulfilled demands guarantee that future demands will not be made. As a result, dowry deaths are a consequence of the intense competitive expansion of capitalism within an intricate web of hierarchical relations, resulting in a widening gap between the rich and the poor, intensified gender stratification, and India’s subordinate status in the world market. In this extremely competitive environment, dowry demands are one method of attempting upward mobility. The modern-day dowry system, as a perverted version of the past, leads to the impoverishment of the bride’s family, allows for the materialistic enrichment of the groom’s family, values the groom as a market commodity, and most importantly, rarely buys security and peace for the bride. Chapter 4 ILLEGALITY OF PRACTICE: INDIA’S POSITIVE LAWS On May 20, 1961, the Parliament of the Central Government of India recognized that the practice of giving and taking dowry was â€Å"evil† especially to the extent that it involved money or goods. 41] For that reason, they enacted the Dowry Prohibition Act (â€Å"the Act†) with the sole objective of eradicating the giving or taking of dowry. [42] The Indian Parliament took further steps, by amending the Indian Penal Code (â€Å"IPC†) in 1983 and again in 1986 with the Indian Evidence Act (â€Å"IEA†), and the Code of Criminal Procedure (â€Å"CCP†), to reduce the dowry murder phenomenon by criminalizing dowry related violence against women. A. The Dowry Prohibition Act of 1961 The Act does not seek to completely abolish the custom of giving gifts upon marriage but to restore the dowry system to its original traditional form and purposes. Accordingly, the statutory definitions do not include the gratuitous stridhan portion of dowry; however, these gifts must be given at the time of the marriage and not before or after. Although the generally accepted definition of dowry is the â€Å"property that a girl brings with her at the time of marriage,† the 1961 Act defined the offense of giving or taking ‘dowry’ as â€Å"including any property or valuable security given or agreed to be given, at or before the marriage as consideration for the marriage†¦Ã¢â‚¬ [43]This language, however, proved to be problematic as an effective method of prohibiting dowry. For example, in the original definition clause, the Act stated that â€Å"any present given or taken by either party, either party’s parents or by any other person directly at the time of marriage was not dowry unless it was taken as consideration for the marriage. †[44] The statute, as worded, only prohibited exchanges that were given or agreed to be given as consideration, and did not include any gifts, in the form of cash, ornaments, clothes, or other articles, given at the time of a marriage to either party. Consequently, the definition of dowry was narrowed, and any gifts given before or upon and any cash/expenditures made after the marriage, were excluded and could not be violations of the Act. As evidence of this gap in coverage, the Delhi High Court, ruled in Madan Lal Ors v. Amar Nath[45], that â€Å"property may pass hands subsequent to marriage, even months or years after it, merely to save the marriage from being broken†¦or to save the wife from harassment, Given the ineffectiveness of the language and the inadequacy of the 1961 law in decreasing the dowry phenomenon as well as in countering the increasing violence and harassment inflicted upon young women, the women’s movement in India campaigned for law reform. As a result, the Indian legislature enacted amendments in 1984 and 1986 with the intention of making the law more stringent and, therefore more effective. The 1984 amendment broadened the scope of the original act by substituting the words â€Å"in connection with the marriage† for the original â€Å"as consideration for marriage. † The definition was broadened again in 1986 to include presents given â€Å"any time after the marriage† within the definition of dowry. Furthermore, the 1986 amendment raised the minimum punishment for taking or abetting the taking of dowry to five years and a fine of 15,000 rupees. Additionally, it shifted the burden of proving that there was no demand for dowry to the person who takes or abets in the taking of dowry, made punishable by imprisonment, for a term of six months to five years, or alternatively, with a fine of 15,000 rupees, any advertisement which related to the offering of property in consideration for marriage was made punishable by imprisonment, and made bail unavailable in dowry cases. 46] As a result of the 1984 and 1986 amendments, the current Act outlaws the giving, taking, or demanding of dowry, which it defines as any property or valuable security given or agreed to be at, before, or after the marriage in connection with the marriage. [47] Thus, the Act provides greater room for the exercise of judicial discretion in declaring a larger range of â€Å"giving† as dowry. Nonetheless, even g iven the expansion of the definition of dowry, the current Act has been widely criticized for being ridden with â€Å"legal loopholes. For example, the Act prohibits dowry but allows the giving of gifts at the time of the marriage. Moreover, the definitions do not clearly define the terms â€Å"consideration,† â€Å"gift,† or â€Å"present,† making it difficult to determine what constitutes consideration and how that differs from a gift. Matters are further complicated by the Act’s use of the word â€Å"dowry† to describe not only what the bride’s parents give to the groom or to their daughters-in-laws but also what the groom’s parents give to the bride and their sons-in-laws. Consequently, the charge of â€Å"dowry† can be easily avoided by offering the items or cash carefully as a gift so as not to invoke any characterization of the property as compensation. To counteract the ambiguity of this language, yet not proscribe the giving of gifts altogether, some have suggested imposing a limit on the aggregate value of such gifts. [48] However, others have agued that this is just as impractical for essentially the same reason that the Act remains unenforceable: corruption is the norm. 225 As a result of the vagueness and under-inclusive nature of the statutory language, the Act still remains argely ineffective. Thus, Indian families can continue to demand dowry money without fear of reprisal. In practice, states may amend the statute if they wish, without restriction for instance by including explanations and definitions for certain terms in their local version of the statute. For example, the state of Haryana amended the Act by widening the definition of dowry. The definition included any marriage expenses incurred directly or indirectly at or before the marriage or in connection with any of the Thaka, Sagai, Tikka, Shagan, and Milni ceremonies. 49] Moreover, unlike the federal act, any gifts to either party in the form of cash, ornaments, clothes or other articles are also considered dowry. [50] Further many state statutes, unlike the Act, have imposed upper limits on the amount of marriage expenses and presents that are allowed to be given. Haryana further prohibited any marriage expenses that were greater than five thousand rupees, restricted the marriage party to twenty-five members and the band to eleven members. Finally, while states have the power to amend, it should also be noted that the states are not required to incorporate any federal amendments made to the Act; For example, when federal amendments were added to the Act in 1984, Haryana did not incorporate these into its state act. B. Additional Corresponding Legislation In 1983, the Indian Penal Code, the Indian Evidence Act, and the Indian Criminal Procedure Code were changed simultaneously to deal more effectively not only with dowry-related deaths, but also with cases of cruelty against married women. The 1986 Amendment to the Act also proposed the new offence of â€Å"dowry death† to be created in the Indian Penal Code as well as any other corresponding legislation. 1. Indian Penal Code In 1983, Parliament amended the Indian Penal Code to outlaw dowry related cruelty by the husband or his relatives by enacting  § 498-A as part of the Criminal Law Act (â€Å"Criminal Act†). [51] The Criminal Act created the offense of cruelty, and provided for the punishment of a husband or his relatives if they harass a woman in order to coerce her to meet any unlawful demand for property. Additionally,  §306 created the offense of â€Å"abetment to suicide† hich provided that anyone who instigates another to commit suicide will be liable for abetting the commission of a suicide when the suicide results from such instigation. Further, in 1986, a new offense of â€Å"dowry death† was created under IPC  § 304-B[52], allowing for an irrefutable presumption previousl y unknown to Indian jurisprudence. It provides that when a woman’s death occurs under questionable circumstances and it is proved that she was subjected to dowry-related cruelty or harassment, it shall be presumed that the husband or any of his relatives committed the offense of dowry death and caused her death. Moreover, it stated that the minimum punishment for committing dowry death was imprisonment of a minimum of 7 years to life. The Judicial Response The attitude of the judiciary at the apex level has -been in favor of women, the crux of which can be condensed to Justice Mohan's judgment in Panniben vs. State of Maharashtra:[53] â€Å"Every time a case relating to dowry death comes up it causes ripples in the pool of conscience of this court. Nothing can be more barbarous, nothing could be more heinous than this sort of a crime †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ † 2. Indian Evidence Act Corresponding to IPC  § 306 via the Criminal Act, the Indian Evidence Act already contained provision 113-A[54] that raised a presumption of an abetment to suicide against the husband or his relatives if the wife commits suicide within a period of seven years and if there is evidence that she had been subjected to cruelty as defined in IPC  § 498-A. However, in 1986, the IEA was further amended with  § 113-Bto allow for the corresponding IPC provision of  § 304-B.  §113-B creates the presumption of dowry death where a women has been subjected to cruelty or harassment for dowry soon before her marriage. The 1983 Amendment Act also inserted Section 113-A in the Indian Evidence Act which raises presumption as to abetment of suicide by a married woman. It lays down that when the question is whether commission of suicide by a woman had been abetted by her husband or any relative of her husband, and it is shown that she had committed suicide within a period of seven years of marriage from the date of her marriage, that her husband or such, relative of her husband had subjected her to cruelty, the court